Mechanisms composing Drosophila's clock are conserved within the animal kingdom. To learn how such clocks influence behavioral and physiological rhythms, the complement of circadian transcripts in adult Drosophila heads was determined. High-density oligonucleotide arrays were used to collect data in the form of three 12-point time course experiments spanning a total of 6 days. Analyses of 24 hr Fourier components of the expression patterns revealed significant oscillations for ~400 transcripts. Based on secondary filters and experimental verifications, a subset of 158 genes showed particularly robust cycling and many oscillatory phases. Circadian expression is associated with genes involved in diverse biological processes, including learning and memory/synapse function, vision, olfaction, locomotion, detoxification, and areas of metabolism. Data collected from three different clock mutants (per₀, tim₀₁, and Clk_Jrk), are consistent with both known and novel regulatory mechanisms controlling circadian transcription (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

A genome-wide expression analysis was performed aimed at identifying all transcripts from the fruit fly head that exhibit circadian oscillations in their expression. By taking time points every 4 hr, a data set was obtained that has a high enough sampling rate to reliably extract 24 hr Fourier components. Time course experiments spanning a day of entrainment followed by a day of free-running were performed to take advantage of both the self-sustaining property of circadian patterns and the improved amplitude and synchrony of circadian patterns found during entrainment. 36 RNA isolates from wild-type adult fruit fly heads, representing three 2 day time courses, were analyzed on high-density oligonucleotide arrays. Each array contained 14,010 probe sets (each composed of 14 pairs of oligonucleotide features) including ~13,600 genes annotated from complete sequence determination of the Drosophila genome. To identify different regulatory patterns underlying circadian transcript oscillations, four-point time course data was colleced from three strains of mutant flies with defects in clock genes (per⁰, tim⁰¹, and Clk^Jrk) during a single day of entrainment. Because all previously known clock-controlled genes cease to oscillate in these mutants but exhibit changes in their average absolute expression levels, the analysis of the mutant data was focused on changes in absolute expression levels rather than on evaluations of periodicity (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

To organize the 158 statistically significant circadian transcripts in a way that was informed by the data, hierarchical clustering was performed. Both the log ratio wild-type data (normalized per experiment) and the log ratios for each of the three clock mutants (normalized to the entire data set) were included to achieve clusters that have both a more or less uniform phase and a uniform pattern of responses to defects in the circadian clock. One of the most interesting clusters generated by this organization is the per cluster. This cluster contains genes that have an expression peak around ZT16 and a tendency to be reduced in expression in the Clk^Jrk mutant. Strikingly, all genes previously known to show this pattern of oscillation (per, tim, vri) are found in this cluster. In fact, the tim gene, which has multiple representations on the oligonucleotide arrays, has two independent representations in this cluster. Together with the novel oscillator CG5798, per, tim, and vri form a subcluster (average phase ZT14) that shows upregulation in both the per⁰ and tim⁰¹ mutants. The fact that per, tim, and vri all function in the central circadian clock raises the possibility that several other genes from this cluster, including the ubiquitin thiolesterase gene CG5798 and the gene coding for the channel modulator Slowpoke binding protein (Slob) may function in the circadian clock or directly downstream of it (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The genes in a second cluster (Clock cluster are primarily grouped together based on their peak phase (average phase ZT2). By virtue of the mutant expression data, several subclusters within this phase group can be identified. The known circadian genes Clock and takeout (to) are part of this cluster. Clk is found in a clustered pair with the leucyl aminopeptidase gene CG9285. In terms of chromosomal organization, to, CG11891, and CG10513 map closely together on chromosome 3R. Two additional circadian genes in this chromosomal region (CG11852, CG1055). Interestingly, the Clk cluster contains three pairs of homologous genes with very similar expression patterns: the UDP-glycosyl transferase genes Ugt35a and Ugt35b, the enteropeptidase genes CG9645 and CG9649, and the long-chain fatty acid transporter genes CG6178 and CG11407. In the first two cases, the homologous genes are also directly adjacent to each other on the chromosome. An overview of the map positions of all circadian genes in this study is available as supplemental information online (http://www.neuron.org/cgi/content/full/32/4/657/DC1). Apart from Ugt35a and Ugt35b, several other genes with a predicted function in detoxification are members of the Clk cluster (CG17524, CG8993, CG3174, Cyp6a21). It may also be noteworthy that the genes for three oxidoreductases found in this group [Photoreceptor dehydrogenase (Pdh), CG15093, CG12116] have almost identical phases (ZT3) (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

All genes of the apterous (ap) cluster are defined by both the oscillatory phase of their expression pattern (average phase ZT17) and by a distinct expression profile in the three clock mutants. Although the 6 hr sampling interval in the mutant data makes it difficult to reliably detect oscillations, it seems that the majority of the genes in this cluster shows some degree of periodicity in the three mutant light-dark regime (LD) time courses. Although it cannot be ruled out that there are circadian oscillations independent from the known clock genes, the hypothesis that there may be a light-driven response underlying the observed mutant expression pattern is favored. The genes in this group may, therefore, be regulated not only by the circadian clock, but also by a direct light-dependent mechanism. It should be mentioned that evidence of gene expression patterns that are purely light-driven in wild-type flies was sought, but little indication was found of such regulation. Instead, genes with both a strong light-driven oscillation and a weak circadian component were encountered. apterous (ap) encodes a LIM-homeobox transcription factor, which is known to act both in neural development and in neuropeptide expression. The ap cluster includes the genes for the transcription factor moira, the synaptic regulator syndapin, two septins (Sep1 and CG9699), and two ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters (CG6162, CG9990). In terms of chromosomal organization, CG6166, the gene adjacent to CG6162 on chromosome 3R is homologous to CG9990 and coregulated with CG6162 and CG9990 (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The founding member of the fourth cluster, ebony (e), encodes β-alanyl-dopamine synthase and has roles in both cuticle tanning and regulating circadian locomotor behavior. Among the other cluster members are six genes that function in protein cleavage (CG9377, Ser99Da, SP1029, CG7828, CG11531, BcDNA:GH02435), three transcription factor genes (CG15632, CG17257, CG6755), as well as two genes each that act in signal transduction (prune, loco), the cytoskeleton (TpnC47D, Chd64), and lipid metabolism (ATPCL, CG1583) (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The per⁰, tim⁰¹, and Clk^Jrk mutations affect genes that are essential for maintaining circadian rhythms and result in both molecular and behavioral arrhythmicity. In addition to abrogating the oscillations of the per, tim, vri, to, and Clk transcripts, these mutations also affect their absolute levels of expression. per⁰ and tim⁰¹ flies have intermediate or somewhat elevated levels of per, tim, vri, and to transcript, and decreased levels of Clk transcript whereas Clk^Jrk mutants have the opposite effect. Based on these observations, genome-wide expression data was gathered from per⁰, tim⁰¹, and Clk^Jrk mutant flies in three separate four-point time course experiments. A rank-sum Wilcoxon test was employed to determine if any of the interrogated transcripts were significantly up- or down-regulated in any of the mutants when compared to the total wild-type expression data set (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Out of the 14010 probe sets on the arrays, 4865 showed up- or down-regulation in one or more of the three mutants with a p value lower than 0.05; 2544 were significantly changed in the tim⁰¹ flies; 1810 were significantly different in per⁰, and 2181 in Clk^Jrk. It is unclear what proportion of these changes depends on the actual mutations themselves, because (1) the three mutant fly strains have different genetic backgrounds and (2) data was collected for only one population of each mutant strain. Although there are known examples of noncircadian genes whose expression is affected by clock mutations, it was decided that it would be more informative to consider effects of the clock mutations only with respect to the subset of 158 strong oscillators. Among this set, 72 genes were found with one or more significant expression changes in the three clock mutant strains (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Included in the regulated set are tim (twice independently), vri, to, and Clk, and their patterns agree with previously published observations. The hierarchical clustergram shows four basic patterns of regulation: (type I) increased in per⁰ and tim⁰¹ but decreased in Clk^Jrk (e.g., vri, CG5798); (type II) decreased in per⁰ and tim⁰¹ but increased in Clk^Jrk (e.g., Clk, CG15447); (type III) decreased in all three mutants (e.g., Ugt36Bc/CG17932, ea), and (type IV) increased in all three mutants (e.g., Pdh, CG11891). Type I and II match the two known modes of regulation for circadian genes. The behavioral and molecular phenotypes of the per⁰ and tim⁰¹ mutations are almost identical. It may, therefore, be relevant that no circadian genes are found that are significantly upregulated in per⁰ and significantly downregulated in tim⁰¹ or vice versa. Apart from genes that were a priori predicted to have expression patterns of type I (vri, tim, to) or II (Clk), novel genes were found for each of these two expression patterns. The average phases for the type I and type II subclusters are, respectively, ZT12 and ZT7, but there is large variation in phase among the members of each of these subclusters. to is in the type I subcluster and has a phase peak at ZT2, whereas CG15447 is in the type II subcluster and peaks at ZT10. This phenomenon of phase differences among transcripts with a similar response to clock defects has been described previously for type I regulation in the case of to. Here, a similar phenomenon was detected for genes with Clk-like type II regulation. Type III and IV predict a novel and unexpected response to the circadian mutants (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The promoter sequences of the set of 158 genes was tested for the presence of known and candidate circadian enhancer motifs. The results suggest that in fact this set is enriched in such elements. For example, the frequency of E boxes in the set of oscillators (42 hits in total) is significantly higher than the frequency in random selections of genes. The significance of this result does, however, depend on the inclusion of well-studied genes (per, tim, vri). Some novel oscillators with remarkable frequencies of 'circadian transcription elements' are loco (1 PDP1 site; 3 W boxes; 8 CRE elements; 3 TER elements); trpl (1 E box; 1 PDP1 site; 9 W boxes; 6 CRE elements; 12 TER elements); Rh5 (5 W boxes; 5 CRE elements; 6 TER elements), and Slob (1 E box; 1 PERR element; 2 PDP1 sites; 6 W boxes; 15 TER elements). It is noteworthy that many robustly cycling genes have no known circadian transcription elements in their promoters or first introns (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The set of 158 circadian genes were organized according to annotated or predicted molecular function. Several of these functional classes may provide insights into pathways influencing rhythmic behavior (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity
An emerging theory of the function of sleep postulates that it is required for neural plasticity, synaptic maintenance, and remodelling. Behaviorally defined sleep has been identified in the fly, with behavioral recordings in LD indicating increased rest during the dark phase. The assay for circadian expression uncovered a number of genes known to be involved in synaptic function and synaptic plasticity (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Three oscillating trancripts encode synaptic vesicle endocytosis factors: ß-adaptin (Bap), AP-1gamma, and syndapin. The first two are adaptors between the budding membrane and clathrin lattice, while syndapin is thought to connect vesicle endocytosis to actin. Clock modulation of the synaptic vesicle pool is consistent with the idea of modulated synaptic function, although it is unclear what effect raising or lowering endocytotic factors would have on synaptic function (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The Slob transcript peaks at ZT15 and is downregulated in the Clk^Jrk mutant, suggesting that CLK acts as an activator of Slob. There is an E box 5.4 kb upstream of the Slob transcriptional start site raising the possibility that CLK acts directly on the Slob promoter (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

If the cycling transcript can be shown to produce oscillating Slob protein, this could indicate a potent mechanism for rhythmic control of synaptic function, including synaptic plasticity: Slob protein binds the calcium-dependent potassium channel Slowpoke (Slo) and has been shown to increase Slo activity and voltage sensitivity. Slob is in turn bound by a second channel regulator, Leonardo. Hypomorphic mutations of leonardo produce defects in learning, and electrophysiological analyses of the larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in these mutants show presynaptic function and plasticity is greatly impaired in these animals. In contrast to Slob, Leonardo is a strong inhibitor of Slo, but requires Slob for this interaction. All three proteins colocalize to the presynaptic bouton at larval NMJs. Thus, Slob may contribute to a switching mechanism that ultimately places Slo channel activity under circadian control (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Slo channels are widely expressed in the adult fly head, including the eye, lamina, medulla, central brain, and mushroom bodies, but it is not known which subset of these areas contain oscillating Slob expression. In situ hybridization was performed with larval brains to localize Slob RNA expression. Prominent staining was observed in a restricted region consistent with placement of the developing mushroom body. The staining also corresponds well with that region of the larval brain receiving PDF-rich projections of the circadian pacemaker cells, the lateral neurons. In future studies, it will be important to determine whether presence of the innervating LNs is required for cycling Slob expression (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

leonardo was initially implicated in presynaptic function by the effect of mutations on learning. Mutations of latheo also cause learning defects, and this protein is also found at larval NMJs. Lowered latheo function has been associated with elevated synaptic transmission and reduced synaptic plasticity. latheo shows cycling expression with peak accumulation at ZT12-15. Rhythmicity was detected in the expression of dunce and Calpain-B genes involved in learning and synaptic long-term potentiation, respectively (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Amine Neurotransmitter-Related Functions
Two serotonin receptor transcripts, 5-HT2 and 5-HT1A, were found to oscillate with phases of ZT15 and ZT18, respectively. Serotonin is known to be involved in a variety of neuronal processes in animals, including synaptic plasticity, clock entrainment, and mating behavior. The 104 serotonergic neurons in the adult CNS have been mapped, but no studies have been done of either 5-HT receptor localization or receptor mutant phenotypes. Neither of these receptors are orthologs of the mammalian 5-HT receptor implicated in photic clock entrainment; this would be represented by theDrosophila 5-HT7 gene. 5-HT1A belongs in a class of receptors that respond to agonists by decreasing cellular cAMP, while 5-HT2 is homologous to mammalian receptors whose main mode of action involves activation of phospholipase C, a function involved in synaptic plasticity (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The ebony transcript was found to oscillate, showing a peak of expression around ZT5. ebony oscillation connects with a body of earlier evidence linking ebony to circadian activity rhythms. ebony hypomorphs show severe defects in circadian rhythm including arrhythmicity/aberrant periodicity in the free-running condition, as well as abnormal activity patterns in LD conditions. Ebony is a putative ß-alanyl dopamine synthetase, and hypomorphs show elevated levels of dopamine. Dopamine has been implicated in control of motor behavior, since it induces reflexive locomotion in decapitated flies, and this response is under circadian control. The results suggest that oscillations of ebony contribute to the assembly of rhythmic locomotor behavior. Other evidence points to a role in clock resetting. In addition to impaired entrainment in LD, ebony flies show an abnormal ERG, and ebony is strongly expressed in the lamina and the medulla optic neuropile, a region associated with vision rather than motor control (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Vision
The Drosophila eye is both a likely target of clock control and partly responsible for photic input to the central pacemaker. Several genes found to oscillate by microarray assay are components of visual processes (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Photoreceptor cells contain peripheral clocks, suggesting that visual function may be regulated by the clock. In vertebrates, the synthesis of various visual components is known to be under circadian control. In Drosophila, electroretinogram (ERG) measurements of visual sensitivity reveal a 4-fold cycle in sensitivity, with a minimum at ZT4 and a broad peak around lights off (ZT12). This suggests that some of the fly visual components are clock controlled. However, a previous study of five major phototransduction components found no cycling of either mRNA or protein. In this genome-wide assay, the trpl transcript was found to oscillate with peak expression at ZT11. TRPL is one of two ion channels in the visual transduction pathway, along with TRP, a paralog. TRPL and TRP open in response to a G protein-coupled phosphoinositide cascade that is initiated by the isomerization of rhodopsin by light. Their opening produces the light-sensitive conductance in the photoreceptors. Amorphic mutants of each channel show visual defects, while the double null genotype results in a blind fly. A cycling trpl transcript could contribute to the visual sensitivity cycle: (1) the two phenomena are in the same phase with both sensitivity and trpl expression peaking around lights-off; (2) it is estimated that TRPL contributes about half of the wild-type conductance, allowing for a substantial range of modulation by reducing TRPL function. Another possible role for oscillating TRPL function is connected with circadian entrainment. In addition to being blind, trp/trpl double null mutants show reduced circadian behavioral resetting and less TIM degradation in response to light pulses. It is noted that the established entrainment factor CRY is known to cycle and that interactions of CRY and TIM are essential for light-dependent TIM degradation. The oscillating, clock-related protein VIVID has also been shown to regulate photo-entrainment in Neurospora (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

The microarray experiments show that two opsin genes are under circadian control: Rh5 and Rh4. The Rh5 mRNA rhythm peaks at ~ZT 21, while the Rh4 array data show a circadian pattern with a peak 4 hr later, at ZT1. Rh5 is a blue-absorbing rhodopsin expressed in a subset of R8 cells at the base of the retina, while Rh4 is a UV-absorbing pigment expressed in apical R7 cells. Rh5 is never expressed in an R8 cell underlying an Rh4-expressing R7 cell, so in this way all ommatidia would contain one cycling rhodopsin. In terms of regulating sensory receptiveness to light, it is unclear why these two opsins should be targets for clock control. The major blue rhodopsin Rh1 does not cycle so it seems unlikely that an oscillation in these two minor pigments would produce overall tuning of the sensitivity of the fly visual system (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

NinaA is a rhodopsin chaperone and is required to move Rh1 from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the rhabdomeric membrane. ninaA mutants display aberrant accumulation of Rh1 protein in the ER. ninaA mRNA shows cycling expression in fly heads by both array and Northern blot, with peak expression around ZT2. It is tempting to hypothesize that early morning ninaA upregulation would have the effect of releasing a reservoir of Rh1 from the ER, making it available for use in visual transduction. However, a previous assay of NinaA levels in an LD regime revealed no oscillation in protein levels. If true, this would represent a surprising example of a robustly oscillating mRNA producing a constitutive cognate protein. Finally, although its function is still unknown, Photoreceptor dehydrogenase is a robustly oscillating transcript with an extremely high level of expression in the screening pigment cells of the eye (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Rhythmic Proteases and Accessory Factors
Fifteen of the identified oscillatory genes are implicated in protein cleavage. CG7828 and BcDNA:GH02435 (peak phase ZT6 and ZT10, respectively) mediate ubiquitination of protein substrates, thus targeting them for degradation. Conversely, CG5798 and CG7288 cycle with a peak at respectively, ZT14 and ZT16, and each produces a ubiquitin specific protease (Ubp; cleaves ubiquitin from ubiquitin-protein conjugates) that may act to prevent the degradation of specific protein targets. Two metalloprotease genes, two aminopeptidase genes, and five serine peptidases show circadian oscillation. Four of the five serine peptidase genes cycle with a peak phase between ZT4-7. This profusion of oscillating proteases suggests that circadian proteolysis may represent a broad mechanism of clock control, both of clock components themselves, as well as output factors (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

While circadian transcriptional mechanisms are relatively well understood, less is known about posttranslational mechanisms of circadian regulation. Proteases are known to be involved in circadian control of the degradation of some central clock components, and the clock proteins PER, TIM, CLK, CRY, and VRI are all known to undergo daily cycles of protein accumulation. Degradation of TIM is responsible for photic resetting of the Drosophila clock. This is thought to be mediated by interaction with CRY, followed by ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent loss of TIM. Nothing is known about the factors mediating TIM degradation in the dark, yet patterns of CG5798 expression may be of interest in this regard as this gene encodes a cycling Ubp whose peak expression (ZT14) immediately precedes an interval of rapid TIM accumulation in pacemaker cells (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

A likely clock-related target of one or more proteases is the neuropeptide PDF, whose regulation may be crucial to linking the clock to behavior. While pdf RNA is expressed constitutively, the peptide accumulates rhythmically under indirect control of the clock gene vri. This mechanism has not been further explored, but a clear possibility is that a PDF propeptide is cleaved rhythmically, allowing cyclical release of active PDF. Of the 15 cycling proteases suggested by this study, CG4723 may be of special interest due to its inclusion in a class of proteases known to cleave neuropeptides. The phase of CG4723 expression, ZT4, also coincides with that of PDF immunoreactivity in the Drosophila head (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Detoxification and Oxidative Stress
One hypothesis of sleep characterizes it as a cellular detoxification and repair process. Twelve genes were found that have a predicted role in detoxification. Three additional redox enzymes may also participate in this process. Toxins are initially modified into reactive species by reductases/dehydrogenases and cytochrome P450 molecules. Then glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) and UDP-glycosyl transferases add polar groups to the substrates to render them hydrophilic for elimination by secretion. Four results are noteworthy: (1) following this pathway, the genes for three circadian dehydrogenases: Pdh, CG10593, and CG12116, were found.; (2) both morning and night cytochrome P450 genes (Cyp6a21 and Cyp305a1) were found to peak early in the day (ZT0 and ZT5), whereas Cyp18a1 and Cyp4d21 peak at approximately the same time late at night (ZT18 and ZT19); (3) while CG17524 is the only GST gene found in the core set, it was noticed that two other members of the GST type III gene cluster on chromosome 2R show 24 hr periodicity (CG17523; CG17527) and (4) UDP-glycosyl transferase genes are represented in the circadian set by Ugt35a, Ugt35b, and Ugt36Bc. Of these, Ugt35b encodes an antennal specific transcript with a potential role in olfaction, whereas Ugt35a is expressed more uniformly (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

CG13848 is an alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (alpha-TTP) that is strongly expressed in certain basal cells of the eye, showing peak expression around dawn. Humans with mutations in the homologous alpha-TTP show neurodegenerative ataxia that is associated with a deficiency in alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) incorporation into lipoprotein particles. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant, and it is thought that this activity allows it to protect neurons from damage by free radicals. Also from human studies, it is known that photoreceptor cells are particularly susceptible to oxidative damage due to high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the photoreceptor membrane, and their exposure to visible light. Thus, it is proposed that the dawn phase of CG13848 represents an upregulation of alpha-TTP for increased daytime transfer of photoprotective vitamin E into the photoreceptor membrane. Also in the circadian set, Catalase (encoded by Cat) and a thioredoxin (encoded by CG8993) are both involved in neutralizing reactive oxygen species (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Metabolism
Different aspects of metabolism are represented among the selected set of oscillating transcripts: lipid metabolism (five genes), amino acid metabolism (three), carbohydrate metabolism (three), and glycoprotein biosynthesis (two). Intriguingly, Zw encodes glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase of the pentose-phosphate pathway (PPP), while CG10611 encodes fructose-bisphosphatase in gluconeogenesis. The two pathways have antagonizing roles in glucose metabolism; both genes are key control points in their respective pathway and are maximally expressed in opposite phases. Zw transcripts are at their zenith just before dusk (ZT11), whereas CG10611 transcripts peak at dawn (ZT0). Thus, the antiphase oscillation of these two genes may produce daily alternation between glucose anabolism and catabolism. Zw and CG10611 transcript levels also respond in opposite fashion to clock defects: Zw levels are significantly decreased in per⁰ and tim⁰¹ mutants, whereas, CG10611 is significantly upregulated in tim⁰¹ (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

In more direct relation to the clock itself, Zw is the first committed step in the PPP and generally thought to control flux through this pathway. The PPP is the major pathway of NAD (or NADP) conversion to NAD(P)H. It was recently shown that NAD(P)H can bind homologs of CLK and CYC, promoting their dimerization and DNA binding. Maximal Zw expression at ZT11 -- and therefore presumably NAD(P)H production via the PPP -- is coincident with maximal per and tim transcription by CLK/CYC. This information is consistent with Zw participating in a NAD(P)H-mediated autoregulatory loop of the clockworks (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Nucleic Acid Metabolism
A subset of 15 genes involved in nucleic acid metabolism were found. This includes five genes encoding specific RNA polymerase II transcription factors. Four of these encode parts of the circadian clock itself (per, tim, vri, and Clk), whereas the fifth one, apterous (ap), generates a homeobox transcription factor with a role in neurogenesis and the expression of neuropeptides. Taf30alpha2 is a subunit of the general transcription factor TFIID, while moira (mor) is part of the SWI-SNF chromatin-remodeling complex. One splicing factor gene (DebB) and one DNA repair gene (CG4049) are also found among this set of oscillating transcripts (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Cytoskeleton
Circadian genes with a role in the cytoskeleton include those encoding two actin binding proteins (Chd64, CG11605), a troponin C (TpnC47D), and two septins (Sep-1 and CG9699). Chd64 (phase peak ZT4) and TpnC47D (phase peak ZT7) function specifically in muscle contraction. Another Drosophila Troponin C, TpnC73F, is found to peak at ZT6 (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

In conclusion, a set of 158 genes expressed with a robust circadian rhythm in the adult Drosophila head was found by microarray screening. These encompass a wide variety of molecular functions, and expression patterns represented essentially all circadian phases. A larger set of genes was identified (393 entries; 293 entries after secondary filters), and the statistical approach again indicated significant circadian rhythmicity for these, but they were characterized by somewhat less robust oscillations than those of the smaller set. Independent verifications indicated substantial enrichment for cycling gene expression in this larger set and beyond. 532 genes passed secondary filters for 24 hr autocorrelation, noise, and the range-to-noise measure. From the frequency of Northern-verified oscillations detected in this larger pool of candidate genes, it is believed that the total complement of circadian genes would include ~400-500 in the adult head (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

There are important factors that might lead to an underestimation of the total complement of circadian genes. The approach that was used would favor genes that are homogeneously expressed in the head. If the same gene is expressed with varied phases in different head tissues, this will lessen the robustness of the apparent oscillation and phase. Similarly, if only a restricted portion of the head generates the cycling gene pattern, but constitutive expression is found elsewhere in the head, amplitude of the signal will be diminished. Differences of this sort might be expected in cases where a cycling gene product produces a limited physiological effect. Regulation of this type might be expected in the antennae, where, for example, electrophysiological responses to odorants vary with a circadian rhythm. It should also be stressed that only the fully differentiated adult head has been sampled. If transient patterns of circadian expression occur during development, these would go unnoticed in the experiment. Given the plethora of tissues housing autonomous circadian clocks, an expanded list of rhythmic genes would probably be derived from any related sampling of the body (e.g., wings, legs, excretory, and digestive tissues), especially as this tissue autonomy may reflect a requirement for tissue-specific pathways of circadian control that lie downstream from a largely uniform clock mechanism (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

How will the many patterns of cycling gene expression be further explored? Molecular tools that reveal the importance of oscillating gene activity have already been applied to a study of several clock genes in Drosophila. In these studies, oscillating patterns of a target gene's expression have been replaced with constitutive activity. Central questions related to vri, per, and tim function have each been explored in this manner. The present study allows an expansion of such work to address the molecular connections between individual behaviors and circadian clocks (Claridge-Chang, 2001).

Two other light-driven transcripts, dlg1 and Slob, are associated with the regulation of synaptic transmission. The dlg1 (discs large 1) gene has roles in control of cell growth and differentiation as well as synaptic function. DLG1 spatial expression pattern includes synaptic sites in the adult brain and the outer membrane of photoreceptors, where it localizes Sh (Shaker) potassium channels (Wijnen, 2006).

Slob is negatively regulated by light in a clock-independent manner in addition to being one of the most robustly oscillating circadian transcripts in the adult head. The clock-dependent and light-dependent fluctuations that were uncovered for the Slob transcript are reflected in the SLOB protein levels observed in photoreceptor cells and whole heads. A number of findings point to a possible role for SLOB in mediating overt behavioral rhythms. SLOB protein is thought to bind the SLO and EAG potassium channels, and can directly enhance SLO activity, as well as mediate the inhibitory effect of 14-3-3ζ on SLO. slo mutants have altered potassium channel currents and reported defects in flight, male courtship, and circadian locomotor behavior, whereas mutations of eag display hyperactivity, and affect potassium currents and courtship behavior (Wijnen, 2006).

As mentioned above, circadian rhythms in adult Drosophila can be entrained to a LD cycle via either opsin-mediated photoreception in the light-sensing organs (compound eyes, ocelli, and eyelets) or cell-autonomous activation of the circadian blue-light photoreceptor CRY. Interestingly, the contribution of visual photo-transduction to circadian photo-entrainment is apparently restricted to a few pacemaker neurons in the brain, a situation reminiscent of photo-entrainment of the clock circuits in the mammalian brain via the retina and the retino-hypothalamic tract. In contrast, Drosophila CRY contributes to photo-entrainment in many more clock-bearing tissues, including the visual organs. CRY mediates the light-dependent degradation of TIM, which in turn affects CLK/CYC transcriptional activity in a manner that depends on the phase of the circadian cycle (Wijnen, 2006).

The light-driven transcript responses identified in this study resemble circadian responses in amplitude and duration in the context of a photocycle, and are found for a number of genes with a verified circadian expression profile. It was, therefore, asked whether these light-driven transcript responses depend on the same light sensors as the circadian system. For the most part light-driven regulation was found not to require CRY. Given TIM's status as a target for CRY-mediated light responses, it is perhaps not surprising that light-driven expression responses that do not require TIM function also persist in the absence of CRY. There is one interesting exception to this rule: The light-mediated repression of the Slob transcript apparently requires CRY, but not TIM. If this observation indeed represents a previously unappreciated function for CRY, it may share this role with the phospholipase C enzyme NORPA, since norpA mutants similarly affect the Slob transcript (Wijnen, 2006).

In contrast with CRY, it was found that NORPA phototransduction mediates many if not all of the other clock-independent light responses identified in this study. Based on the overlapping expression of both NORPA and its target transcripts in the adult compound eyes and NORPA's well-documented role in phototransduction, the simplest interpretation of these observations would be that light-driven expression responses are mediated by visual phototransduction. Nevertheless, NORPA is known to be expressed outside of the visual organs, and it has been reported to affect functions unrelated to phototransduction, such as olfaction and temperature-controlled clock gene oscillations. Additionally, norpA loss-of-function mutants show a number of defects in circadian locomotor behavior. Their activity profiles reveal an advanced evening activity peak under LD conditions and a shortened intrinsic period length under DD conditions, and they are slow to adjust their behavior to shifting cycles of light and dark. One possible interpretation of these observations is that NORPA plays a role in seasonal photoperiodic control of locomotor behavior. The norpA mutant phenotype partially mimics the effect of a shortened photoperiod, which also leads to advanced evening activity peaks and shortened period lengths. Recent studies provide further evidence connecting norpA to seasonal control of daily locomotor activity patterns. norpA mutants show abnormally high levels of splicing in the 3' untranslated region of per mRNA. Increased splicing of per transcripts at this site has been shown to contribute to the advanced accumulation of PER protein and the advanced timing of evening locomotor activity that is observed for shorter photoperiods and lower temperatures. Thus, NORPA's effect on splicing of per may be an important determinant of the 'short day' locomotor behavior phenotype of norpA mutants. The sustained photic expression responses that are identified here may reflect yet another mechanism for flies to translate a seasonal environmental signal (photoperiod) into a set of molecular signals. Photoperiodic control of transcripts associated with functions in visual sensitivity (trpl and CdsA) and synaptic transmission (Slob and dlg1) may be relevant to adaptive responses in the visual system and the brain. NORPA's involvement in both regulating per splicing and mediating photoresponses at the transcript level raises questions as to if and how these two molecular functions are connected. One possibility is that both reflect NORPA-dependent selective regulation of mRNA stability that takes place in the compound eyes (and perhaps also the brain). Whether or not NORPA's function in circadian locomotor behavior involves some of the light-dependent expression responses that have been identified could be examined by targeted misexpression studies. The subset of transcripts that have been independently confirmed to exhibit both NORPA-dependent light responses and strong clock-dependent circadian regulation might be particularly relevant to these experiments (Wijnen, 2006).

This paper has reported a new strategy for analyzing oscillatory patterns in microarrray data that allowed answer general questions about oscillatory gene systems in the fly head. By applying this strategy to 17 d of data, it was conclusively demonstrated that there are more than a hundred circadian transcript oscillations in the fly head. Additionally, in a search for rhythmic gene activity over a wide range of periods (from 12 to 48 h), it was established that 24-h periodicity constitutes the only broad program of transcriptional oscillation. It was further found that the tim-dependent clock is the sole transcriptional circadian clock in Drosophila. Thus, the fly appears to differ from cyanobacteria, protists, plants, and fungi, which are thought to possess multiple circadian clocks. Lastly, a novel, light-regulated system of gene regulation was found in Drosophila that is largely dependent on norpA-mediated phototransduction. This system regulates about the same number of genes as the clock, including a number of circadian genes. This study defines three types of transcripts that oscillate in wild-type flies: those from purely clock-regulated genes, those that are purely photocycle-regulated, and those expressed by genes that respond to both inputs (Wijnen, 2006).

In Drosophila, the clock that controls rest-activity rhythms synchronizes with light-dark cycles through either the blue-light sensitive cryptochrome (Cry) located in most clock neurons, or rhodopsin-expressing histaminergic photoreceptors. This study shows that, in the absence of Cry, each of the two histamine receptors Ort and HisCl1 contribute to entrain the clock whereas no entrainment occurs in the absence of the two receptors. In contrast to Ort, HisCl1 does not restore entrainment when expressed in the optic lobe interneurons. Indeed, HisCl1 is expressed in wild-type photoreceptors and entrainment is strongly impaired in flies with photoreceptors mutant for HisCl1. Rescuing HisCl1 expression in the Rh6-expressing photoreceptors restores entrainment but it does not in other photoreceptors, which send histaminergic inputs to Rh6-expressing photoreceptors. These results thus show that Rh6-expressing neurons contribute to circadian entrainment as both photoreceptors and interneurons, recalling the dual function of melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in the mammalian retina (Alejevski, 2019).

Most of the 1500 Clk direct target genes are also bound by two other circadian transcription factors: Cyc and Per. Because a previous study showed that there is a progressive, ordered recruitment of Clk, Pol II, and Per on per and tim (Menet, 2010), the same basic mechanism is conserved on most Clk direct targets. Clk binding increases in late morning and gives rise to an increase in Pol II signal where detectable (ZT6-ZT10). Clk binding is maximal in the early night (ZT14), and both Clk binding and Pol II occupancy decrease rapidly after the repressor Per is bound to chromatin 4-6 h later, at ZT18. Interestingly, Per binds to nearly all Clk direct targets at the identical Clk/Cyc locations, suggesting Per recruitment via protein-protein interactions (Abruzzi, 2011).

The identical binding sites for Clk, Cyc, and Per suggest that binding is not background binding or 'sterile' binding with no functional consequence. This is because three components of the circadian transcription machinery are present with proper temporal regulation. Pol II cycling on ~30% of cycling Clk targets further supports this interpretation. The Pol II signal is maximal from mid- to late morning (ZT6-ZT10), which slightly anticipates the maximal transcription times of core circadian genes like per and tim. Most Pol II signals are promoter-proximal and may reflect poised Pol II complexes often found on genes that respond quickly to environmental stimuli (Abruzzi, 2011).

To address RNA cycling, ten direct target genes with Pol II cycling were examined. Eight of these genes show oscillating mRNA with >1.5-fold amplitude, suggesting that oscillating Pol II indeed reflects cycling transcription. Because this assay may underestimate cycling transcription due to tissue heterogeneity (i.e., masking by noncycling gene expression elsewhere in the head), ~30% is a minimal estimate of Clk direct targets with cyclical mRNA (Abruzzi, 2011).

Interestingly, previous microarray studies did not detect many of these genes. One possibility is that the alternative start sites that characterize 55% of Clk direct targets are not detectable on microarrays; e.g., moe and mnt. However, several mRNAs that cycle robustly by qRT-PCR are not isoform-specific and are also not consistently identified in microarray studies. A second possibility is that the relatively low cycling amplitude of many target genes -- twofold or less, compared with the much greater amplitudes of core clock genes such as tim, per, and pdp1, assayed in parallel -- may be more difficult to detect on microarrays (Abruzzi, 2011).

Low-amplitude cycling may result from relatively stable mRNA, which will dampen the amplitude of cycling transcription. Alternatively, or in addition, low-amplitude cycling may reflect cycling in one head location and noncycling elsewhere within the head, which will dampen head RNA cycling amplitude. This is likely for many eye-specific Clk targets, which appear expressed elsewhere in the head via a Clk-independent mechanism (Abruzzi, 2011).

A third and arguably more interesting explanation for low-amplitude cycling is that Clk binds on promoters with other transcription factors within single tissues. These could include chromatin modifiers and would function together with Clk in a gene- and tissue-specific fashion. For example, a gene could be constitutively expressed at a basal level by one transcription factor, with temporal Clk binding causing a modest boost to transcription. For example, gol is a Clk target exclusively in the eye, and gol mRNA cycles with a fourfold amplitude. Rather than cycling from 'OFF' (no or very low mRNA levels) to 'ON,' however, gol mRNA levels are quite high even at the trough or lowest time points. This suggests that gol cycles from a substantial basal level in the late night and daytime to an even higher level of expression in the evening and early night. Since mRNA levels decrease by >10-fold in GMR-hid flies, trough transcription levels are not likely from other tissues. Therefore, Clk probably acts on gol and other targets not as an 'ON/OFF switch,' but rather in concert with other factors to boost a basal level of gene expression at a particular time of day and cause low-amplitude cycling within a single tissue (Abruzzi, 2011).

The large number of Clk target genes in fly heads is explained in part by tissue-specific Clk binding. Transcription assays that measure the cycling of mRNA and Pol II binding in one head tissue can be masked by noncycling expression in another. The ChIP assays, in contrast, are not plagued with the same problem. They can identify a gene bound by the cycling circadian transcription machinery even if the same gene is constitutively expressed elsewhere in the head. Surprisingly 44% of Clk direct targets were no longer detected when eyes were ablated with GMR-hid. Because many of these mRNAs are not particularly eye-enriched, it is inferred that their genes are constitutively expressed under the control of other transcription factors elsewhere in the head (Abruzzi, 2011).

The large number of target genes is also explained by the efficiency and sensitivity of the ChIP assay. It is inferred that it can detect Clk binding from a relatively low number of cells within the fly head. Lim1 is one example and is expressed predominantly in a subset of circadian neurons (l-LNvs; enriched more than four times relative to head). Preliminary cell-specific Clk ChIP-chip experiments from LNvs confirm that lim1 is an enriched Clk direct target in these cells, suggesting that this is the source of a large fraction of the binding signal in the head ChIP-chip experiments. Experiments are under way to more clearly define circadian neuron-specific Clk-binding patterns (Abruzzi, 2011).

This tissue specificity also suggests the existence of factors and/or chromatin modifications that help regulate Clk-mediated gene expression. They could enable Clk binding to specific genes in one tissue or inhibit binding in another tissue. These tissue-specific factors are strongly indicated by the pdp1 and lk6 Clk-binding patterns, which change so strikingly and specifically in GMR-hid. Although not unprecedented, tissue-specific factors that enable or inhibit specific DNA-binding locations are intriguing and warrant further investigation and identification (Abruzzi, 2011).

Neuropeptides control rhythmic behaviors, but the timing and location of their release within circuits is unknown. Imaging in the brain shows that synaptic neuropeptide release by Drosophila clock neurons is diurnal, peaking at times of day that were not anticipated by prior electrical and Ca(2+) data. Furthermore, hours before peak synaptic neuropeptide release, neuropeptide release occurs at the soma, a neuronal compartment that has not been implicated in peptidergic transmission. The timing disparity between release at the soma and terminals results from independent and compartmentalized mechanisms for daily rhythmic release: consistent with conventional electrical activity-triggered synaptic transmission, terminals require Ca(2+) influx, while somatic neuropeptide release is triggered by the biochemical signal IP(3). Upon disrupting the somatic mechanism, the rhythm of terminal release and locomotor activity period are unaffected, but the number of flies with rhythmic behavior and sleep-wake balance are reduced. These results support the conclusion that somatic neuropeptide release controls specific features of clock neuron-dependent behaviors. Thus, compartment-specific mechanisms within individual clock neurons produce temporally and spatially partitioned neuropeptide release to expand the peptidergic connectome underlying daily rhythmic behaviors (Klose, 2021).

FAP imaging revealed synaptic neuropeptide release from LNv clock neurons that does not conform to predictions from previously used indirect methods. Earlier neuropeptide-content measurements could not resolve whether somatic changes were due to release or traffic and did not detect l-LNv rhythmic neuropeptide release, likely because it is relatively modest and/or obscured by DCV capture that replenishes synaptic neuropeptide stores. Furthermore, Ca2+ measured at the soma was not reflective of release at terminals likely because of somatic IP3 signaling. Thus, presynaptic Ca2+ may be more predictive of release by LNv termini. Finally, somatic electrical recording does not take into account regulation by presynaptic inputs. Thus, direct live imaging of neuropeptide release is essential for monitoring peptidergic transmission in the brain (Klose, 2021).

Indeed, this approach demonstrates that central clock neurons release neuropeptide from terminals and the soma, with each compartment operating with different mechanisms and timing. Release from LNv clock neuron terminals is conventional (i.e., mediated by extracellular Ca2+ influx); because cell specific genetic Ca2+-channel inhibition was not used, the contributions of Ca2+ channels in LNv neurons and their presynaptic inputs was not determined. In contrast, somatic neuropeptide release is triggered by IP3 signaling that operates in the absence of action potential-induced Ca2+ influx. This shows that the two compartments use different mechanisms. It also raises the possibility that release by the two compartments differ in cell autonomy. Most importantly, different release mechanisms allow for multiphasic temporal control of neuropeptide release from separate compartments of the same neuron, each of which releases onto different parts of the clock circuit, thereby providing separate output avenues to independently influence different parameters of behavior (Klose, 2021).

Disruption of the circadian clock, which directs rhythmic expression of numerous output genes, accelerates aging. To enquire how the circadian system protects aging organisms, compare circadian transcriptomes in heads of young and old Drosophila melanogaster were compared. The core clock and most output genes remained robustly rhythmic in old flies, while others lost rhythmicity with age, resulting in constitutive over- or under-expression. Unexpectedly, a subset of genes was identified that adopted increased or de novo rhythmicity during aging, enriched for stress-response functions. These genes, termed late-life cyclers, were also rhythmically induced in young flies by constant exposure to exogenous oxidative stress, and this upregulation is CLOCK-dependent. Age-onset rhythmicity was identified in several putative primary piRNA transcripts overlapping antisense transposons. These results suggest that, as organisms age, the circadian system shifts greater regulatory priority to the mitigation of accumulating cellular stress (Kuintzle, 2017).

Sleep is a fundamental behavior in an animal's life influenced by many internal and external factors, such as aging and diet. Critically, poor sleep quality places people at risk of serious medical conditions. Because aging impairs quality of sleep, measures to improve sleep quality for elderly people are needed. Given that diet can influence many aspects of sleep, this study investigated whether a high-sucrose diet (HSD) affected aging-induced sleep fragmentation using the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is a valuable model for studying sleep due to its genetic tractability and many similarities with mammalian sleep. Total sleep duration, sleep bout numbers (SBN), and average sleep bout length (ABL) were compared between young and old flies on a normal sucrose diet (NSD) or HSD. On the NSD, old flies slept slightly more and showed increased SBN and reduced ABL, indicating increased sleep fragmentation. Short-term maintenance of flies in HSD (up to 8 days), but not long-term maintenance (up to 35 days), suppressed aging-induced sleep fragmentation. This study provides meaningful strategies for preventing the deterioration of sleep quality in the elderly (Lee, 2021).

Circadian clocks are autonomous daily timekeeping mechanisms that allow organisms to adapt to environmental rhythms as well as temporally organize biological functions. Clock-controlled timekeeping involves extensive regulation of rhythmic gene expression. To date, relatively few clock-associated promoter elements have been identified and characterized. In an unbiased search of core clock gene promoters from 12 species of Drosophila, a 29-bp consensus sequence was discovered that has been designated as the Clock-Associated Transcriptional Activation Cassette or 'CATAC'. To experimentally address the spatiotemporal expression information associated with this element, constructs were generated with four separate native CATAC elements upstream of a basal promoter driving expression of either the yeast Gal4 or firefly luciferase reporter genes. Reporter assays showed that presence of wild-type, but not mutated CATAC elements, imparted increased expression levels as well as rhythmic regulation. Part of the CATAC consensus sequence resembles the E-box binding site for the core circadian transcription factor CLOCK/CYCLE (CLK/CYC), and CATAC-mediated expression rhythms are lost in the presence of null mutations in either cyc or the gene encoding the CLK/CYC inhibitor, period (per). Nevertheless, the results indicate that CATAC's enhancer function persists in the absence of CLK/CYC. Thus, CATAC represents a novel cis-regulatory element encoding clock-controlled regulation (Sharp, 2017).

The genome of Drosophila melanogaster contains seven rhodopsin genes. Rh1-6 proteins are known to have respective absorption spectra and function as visual pigments in ocelli and compound eyes. In contrast, Rh7 protein was recently revealed to function as a circadian photoreceptor in the brain. However, its molecular properties have not been characterized yet. This study successfully prepared a recombinant protein of Drosophila Rh7 in mammalian cultured cells. Drosophila Rh7 bound both 11-cis-retinal and 11-cis-3-hydroxyretinal to form photo-pigments which can absorb UV light. Irradiation with UV light caused formation of a visible-light absorbing metarhodopsin that activated Gq-type of G protein. This state could be photoconverted back to the original state and, thus Rh7 is a Gq-coupled bistable pigment. Interestingly, Rh7 (lambda max = 350 nm) exhibited an unusual broad spectrum with a longer wavelength tail reaching 500 nm, whose shape is like a composite of spectra of two pigments. In contrast, replacement of lysine at position 90 with glutamic acid caused the formation of a normal-shaped absorption spectrum with maximum at 450 nm. Therefore, Rh7 is a unique photo-sensor that can cover a wide wavelength region by a single pigment to contribute to non-visual photoreception (Sakai, 2017).

Many insects show strong behavioral responses to short wavelength light. Drosophila melanogaster exhibit Cryptochrome- and Hyperkinetic-dependent blue and ultraviolet (UV) light avoidance responses that vary by time-of-day, suggesting that these key sensory behaviors are circadian regulated. This study shows mutant flies lacking core clock genes exhibit defects in both time-of-day responses and valence of UV light avoidance/attraction behavior. Non-genetic environmental disruption of the circadian clock by constant UV light exposure leads to complete loss of rhythmic UV light avoidance/attraction behavior. Flies with ablated or electrically silenced circadian lateral ventral neurons have attenuated avoidance response to UV light. It is concluded that circadian clock proteins and the circadian lateral ventral neurons of the adult brain regulate both the timing and the valence of UV light avoidance/attraction. These results provide mechanistic support for Pittendrigh's "escape from light" hypothesis regarding the co-evolution of phototransduction and circadian systems (Baik, 2018).

The human 1q21.1 deletion of ten genes is associated with increased risk of schizophrenia. This deletion involves the beta-subunit of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) complex, a key energy sensor in the cell. Although neurons have a high demand for energy and low capacity to store nutrients, the role of AMPK in neuronal physiology is poorly defined. This study shows that AMPK is important in the nervous system for maintaining neuronal integrity and for stress survival and longevity in Drosophila. To understand the impact of this signaling system on behavior and its potential contribution to the 1q21.1 deletion syndrome, this study focused on sleep, an important role of which is proposed to be the reestablishment of neuronal energy levels that are diminished during energy-demanding wakefulness. Sleep disturbances are one of the most common problems affecting individuals with psychiatric disorders. This study shows that AMPK is required for maintenance of proper sleep architecture and for sleep recovery following sleep deprivation. Neuronal AMPKbeta loss specifically leads to sleep fragmentation and causes dysregulation of genes believed to play a role in sleep homeostasis. These data also suggest that AMPKbeta loss may contribute to the increased risk of developing mental disorders and sleep disturbances associated with the human 1q21.1 deletion (Nagy, 2018).

The circadian system, which has a period of about 24 h, is import for organismal health and fitness. The molecular circadian clock consists of feedback loops involving both transcription and translation, and proper function of the circadian system also requires communication among intracellular organelles. As important hubs for signaling in the cell, mitochondria integrate a variety of signals. Mitochondrial dysfunction and disruption of circadian rhythms are observed in neurodegenerative diseases and during aging. However, how mitochondrial dysfunction influences circadian rhythm is largely unknown. This study reports that Drosophila prune (pn), which localizes to the mitochondrial matrix, most likely affects the function of certain clock neurons. Deletion of pn in flies caused decreased expression of mitochondrial transcription factor TFAM and reductions in levels of mitochondrial DNA, which resulted in mitochondrial dysfunction. Loss of pn decreased the amplitude of circadian rhythms. In addition, depletion of mtDNA by overexpression of a mitochondrially targeted restriction enzyme mitoXhoI also decreased the robustness of circadian rhythms. This work demonstrates that pn is important for mitochondrial function thus involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms (Chen. 2019).

Following acute neural injury, severed axons undergo programmed Wallerian degeneration over several following days. While sleep has been linked with synaptic reorganization under other conditions, the role of sleep in responses to neural injuries remains poorly understood. To study the relationship between sleep and neural injury responses, Drosophila melanogaster was examined following the removal of antennae or other sensory tissues. Daytime sleep is elevated after antennal or wing injury, but sleep returns to baseline levels within 24 h after injury. Similar increases in sleep are not observed when olfactory receptor neurons are silenced or when other sensory organs are severed, suggesting that increased sleep after injury is not attributed to sensory deprivation, nociception, or generalized inflammatory responses. Neuroprotective disruptions of the E3 ubiquitin ligase highwire and c-Jun N-terminal kinase basket in olfactory receptor neurons weaken the sleep-promoting effects of antennal injury, suggesting that post-injury sleep may be influenced by the clearance of damaged neurons. Finally, pre-synaptic active zones were shown to be preferentially removed from severed axons within hours after injury, and depriving recently injured flies of sleep slows the removal of both active zones and damaged axons. These data support a bidirectional interaction between sleep and synapse pruning after antennal injury: locally increasing the need to clear neural debris is associated with increased sleep, which is required for efficient active zone removal after injury (Singh, 2020).

Growing evidence indicates that microRNAs play numerous important roles. However, the roles of some microRNAs involved in regulation of circadian rhythm and sleep are still not well understood. This study shows that the miR-276b is essential for maintaining both sleep and circadian rhythm by targeting tim, NPFR and DopR1 genes, with miR-276b deleted mutant flies sleeping more, and vice versa in miR-276b overexpressing flies. Through analysing its promoter, mir-276b was found to be responsive to CLOCK and regulates circadian rhythm through the negative feedback loop of the CLK/CYC-TIM/PER. Furthermore, miR-276b is broadly expressed in the clock neurons and the central complexes such as the mushroom body and the fan-shape body of Drosophila brain, in which up-regulation of miR-276b in tim, npfr1 and DopR1 expressing tissues significantly causes sleep decreases. This study clarifies that the mir-276b is very important for participating in regulation of circadian rhythm and sleep (Zhang, 2020).

The endogenous circadian period of animals and humans is typically very close to 24 h. Individuals with much longer circadian periods have been observed, however, and in the case of humans, these deviations have health implications. Previously, a line of Drosophila was observed with a very long average period of 31.3 h for locomotor activity behavior. Preliminary mapping indicated that the long period did not map to known canonical clock genes but instead mapped to multiple chromosomes. Using RNA-Seq, the whole transcriptome of fly heads from this line was surveyed across time and compared with a wild-type control. A three-way generalized linear model revealed that approximately two-thirds of the genes were expressed differentially among the two genotypes, while only one quarter of the genes varied across time. Using these results, algorithms were applied to search for genes that oscillated over 24 h, identifying genes not previously known to cycle. 166 differentially expressed genes were identified that overlapped with a previous Genome-wide Association Study (GWAS) of circadian behavior, strongly implicating them in the long-period phenotype. Mutations were tested in 45 of these genes for their effect on the circadian period. Mutations in Alk, alph, CG10089, CG42540, CG6034, Kairos (CG6123), CG8768, klg, Lar, sick, and tinc had significant effects on the circadian period, with seven of these mutations increasing the circadian period of locomotor activity behavior. Genetic rescue of mutant Kairos restored the circadian period to wild-type levels, suggesting it has a critical role in determining period length in constant darkness (Kumar, 2020).

The transcription factor CLOCK (CLK) is essential for the development and maintenance of circadian rhythms in Drosophila. However, little is known about how CLK levels are controlled. This study shows that Clk mRNA is strongly regulated post-transcriptionally through its 3' UTR. Flies expressing Clk transgenes without normal 3' UTR exhibit variable CLK-driven transcription and circadian behaviour as well as ectopic expression of CLK-target genes in the brain. In these flies, the number of the key circadian neurons differs stochastically between individuals and within the two hemispheres of the same brain. Moreover, flies carrying Clk transgenes with deletions in the binding sites for the miRNA bantam have stochastic number of pacemaker neurons, suggesting that this miRNA mediates the deterministic expression of CLK. Overall these results demonstrate a key role of Clk post-transcriptional control in stabilizing circadian transcription, which is essential for proper development and maintenance of circadian rhythms in Drosophila (Lerner, 2021).

Rhythmic rest-activity cycles are controlled by an endogenous clock. In Drosophila, this clock resides in ∼150 neurons organized in clusters whose hierarchy changes in response to environmental conditions. The concerted activity of the circadian network is necessary for the adaptive responses to synchronizing environmental stimuli. Thus far work was devoted to unravel the logic of the coordination of different clusters focusing on neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. This study further explored communication in the adult male brain through ligands belonging to the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) pathway. This study shows that the Lateral Neurons ventral (LNvs) express the small morphogen Decapentaplegic (DPP). DPP expression in the large LNvs triggered a period lengthening phenotype, while its downregulation caused reduced rhythmicity and affected anticipation at dawn and dusk, underscoring DPP per se conveys time-of-day relevant information. Surprisingly, its expression in the large LNvs impaired circadian remodeling of the small LNv axonal terminals, likely through local modulation of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) Trio. These findings open the provocative possibility that the BMP pathway is recruited to strengthen/reduce the connectivity among specific clusters along the day and thus modulate their contribution to the circadian network (Polcownuk, 2021).

Full comprehension of circadian clocks function requires precise understanding of their entrainment to the environment. The phase of entrained clock is plastic, which depends on different factors such as the period of endogenous oscillator, the period of the zeitgeber cycle (T), and the proportion of light and darkness (day length). This study investigated the importance of the neuropeptide Pigment-Dispersing Factor (PDF) for entrainment by systematically studying locomotor activity rhythms of Pdf mutants and wild-type flies under different T-cycles (T22 to T32) and different day lengths (8, 12, and 16 hour [h]). Furthermore, this study analysed Period protein oscillations in selected groups of clock neurons in both genotypes under T24 and T32 at a day length of 16 h. As expected, it was found that the phase of Drosophila's evening activity and evening neurons advanced with increasing T in all the day lengths. This advance was much larger in Pdf mutants (~7 h) than in wild-type flies causing (1) pronounced desynchrony between morning and evening neurons and (2) evening activity to move in the morning instead of the evening. Most interestingly, it was found that the lights-off transition determines the phase of evening neurons in both genotypes and that PDF appears necessary to delay the evening neurons by ~3 h to their wild-type phase (, 2021). Thus, in T32, PDF first delays the molecular cycling in the evening neurons, and then, as shown in previous studies, delays their neuronal firing rhythms to produce a total delay of ~7 h necessary for a wild-type evening activity phase. It is concluded that PDF is crucial for appropriate phasing of Drosophila activity rhythm (Vaze, 2021).

In all organisms with circadian clocks, post-translational modifications of clock proteins control the dynamics of circadian rhythms, with phosphorylation playing a dominant role. All major clock proteins are highly phosphorylated, and many kinases have been described to be responsible. In contrast, it is largely unclear whether and to what extent their counterparts, the phosphatases, play an equally crucial role. To investigate this, a systematic RNAi screen was performed in human cells and protein phosphatase 4 (PPP4) was identified with its regulatory subunit PPP4R2 as critical components of the circadian system in both mammals and Drosophila. Genetic depletion of PPP4 (Pp4-19C in Drosophila) shortens the circadian period, whereas overexpression lengthens it. PPP4 inhibits CLOCK/BMAL1 transactivation activity by binding to BMAL1 (Cycle in Drosophila) and counteracting its phosphorylation. This leads to increased CLOCK/BMAL1 DNA occupancy and decreased transcriptional activity, which counteracts the "kamikaze" properties of CLOCK/BMAL1. Through this mechanism, PPP4 contributes to the critical delay of negative feedback by retarding PER/CRY/CK1Δ-mediated inhibition of CLOCK/BMAL1 (Klemz, 2021).

Sleep is essential for a variety of plastic processes, including learning and memory. However, the consequences of insufficient sleep on circuit connectivity remain poorly understood. To better appreciate the effects of sleep loss on synaptic connectivity across a memory-encoding circuit, changes were examined in the distribution of synaptic markers in the Drosophila mushroom body (MB). Protein-trap tags for active zone components indicate that recent sleep time is inversely correlated with Bruchpilot (BRP) abundance in the MB lobes; sleep loss elevates BRP while sleep induction reduces BRP across the MB. Overnight sleep deprivation also elevated levels of dSyd-1 and Cacophony, but not other pre-synaptic proteins. Cell-type-specific genetic reporters show that MB-intrinsic Kenyon cells (KCs) exhibit increased pre-synaptic BRP throughout the axonal lobes after sleep deprivation; similar increases were not detected in projections from large interneurons or dopaminergic neurons that innervate the MB. These results indicate that pre-synaptic plasticity in KCs is responsible for elevated levels of BRP in the MB lobes of sleep-deprived flies. Because KCs provide synaptic inputs to several classes of post-synaptic partners, a fluorescent reporter for synaptic contacts was used to test whether each class of KC output connections is scaled uniformly by sleep loss. The KC output synapses that were observed in this study can be divided into three classes: KCs to MB interneurons; KCs to dopaminergic neurons, and KCs to MB output neurons. No single class showed uniform scaling across each constituent member, indicating that different rules may govern plasticity during sleep loss across cell types (Weiss, 2021).

This study used genetic reporters to quantify the effects of sleep loss on pre-synaptic active zone markers and putative synaptic contacts in the Drosophila MB lobes. Abundance of Brp, dSyd-1, and Cacophony broadly increase across all MB lobes after overnight sleep deprivation and that acutely increasing sleep for 6 h is sufficient to reduce Brp levels across the α, 'β, γ, and 'β' lobes. KCs strongly contribute to the increase in Brp across each MB lobe following sleep loss, while pre-synapses of other MB cell types are less sensitive to sleep disruption. Because release of Drosophila neuromodulators likely occurs through a combination of classical neurotransmission and extrasynaptic release, these studies do not rule out the possibility that BRP-independent secretion of dopaminergic dense core vesicles might be altered in the MB lobes by sleep loss. The elevated levels of Brp present in KCs of sleep-deprived flies return to control levels within 48 h of ab libitum recovery sleep. While associative learning can recover within only a few hours after sleep deprivation, these studies indicate that some synaptic consequences of prolonged waking may persist for at least 24 h of recovery. These findings parallel those from humans and rodents, suggesting that some measures of cognition and neurophysiology recover rapidly after acute sleep loss while others last much longer, even for several days in some cases. The tractability of Drosophila may provide opportunities for future studies to investigate the processes that mediate recovery from sleep loss and to test whether similar trends in plasticity occur in other neuropil regions across the brain (Weiss, 2021).

Interestingly, sleep deprivation does not seem to increase other active zone components: Rim and Syt1 only show localized changes in some MB lobes, and the primarily post-synaptic marker Dlg shows no significant changes across the MB after sleep loss. Additionally, it was found that the abundance of vesicular proteins Rab3 and nSyb decreases across all MB lobes following overnight sleep deprivation. The varying responses between pre-synaptic components may indicate that sleep deprivation may alter the abundance of some active zone constituents along differing time courses or that active zone release machinery may be regulated differently from synaptic vesicle pools. The varied responses of each synaptic reporter that was observed suggests that Brp, dSyd-1, and Cac levels may underlie the consequences of sleep loss on MB functioning, but the precise physiological consequences of these changes on KC neurotransmitter release are unclear. Previous work finds that increasing BRP gene copy number drives changes in other active zone proteins that recapitulate protein levels observed in short sleeping mutants and also increases sleep in a dose-dependent manner (Weiss, 2021).

It is tempting to speculate that increases in Brp with sleep loss may drive concomitant increases in some core active zone scaffolding components and compensatory decreases in some proteins regulating synaptic vesicle release. Experiments at the Drosophila larval NMJ indicate that elevated Brp levels increase the rate of spontaneous release and enhance facilitation with pairs of stimuli, while other markers of synapse strength, including the amplitudes of evoked and spontaneous junction potentials, remained unchanged (Weiss, 2021).

It is unclear whether acute changes in Brp with sleep loss induce the same physiological changes at MB-output synapses, and additional studies will be required to understand how plastic mechanisms that contribute to memory formation might be altered by the pre-synaptic changes described above. Recent work finds that pan-neuronal knockdown of dSyd-1 can reduce sleep and dampen homeostatic rebound, even in flies with elevated BRP (Weiss, 2021).

Consistent with the idea that dSyd-1 levels may influence sleep pressure, decreased dSyd-1MI05387-GFSTF abundance was found in previously sleep-deprived flies after 48 h of recovery. While the MB contains several different cell types, pre-synapses in the axons of KCs appear to be uniquely plastic during sleep loss. Use of an activity-dependent fluorescent GRASP reporter of synaptic contacts observed that sleep loss altered synaptic contacts between KCs and distinct post-synaptic partners in different ways (Weiss, 2021).

Among these changes, it was found that GRASP fluorescence reporting contacts from KCs to PPL1 DANs is strongly decreased after sleep loss, indicating a weakening of the KC > PPL1 DAN contacts. Interestingly, these connections may be vital for recurrent activation within MB compartments during learning and could contribute to prediction error signals (Weiss, 2021).

While further studies will be required to examine the contribution of these particular connections to learning deficits after sleep loss, human subjects have been reported to exhibit impaired error prediction and affective evaluation in learning tasks following sleep loss (Weiss, 2021).

Because reduced GRASP signal was observed in KC > PPL1 DAN connections, which mediate aversive reinforcement, and not in KC > PAM DAN connections, which influence appetitive reinforcement, it is also possible that sleep loss may not equally degrade the encoding of reinforcement signals across all valences or modalities. Recent findings also suggest that not all forms of memory require sleep for consolidation; appetitive olfactory memories can be consolidated without sleep when flies are deprived of food, and sleep-dependent and independent memory traces in these conditions are stored in separate MB zones (Weiss, 2021).

The KC > MBON connections that contribute to sleep-dependent memory (KC > γ2α'1) also show an overall decrease in GRASP signal with sleep loss, while those that are vital for sleep-independent memory (MBON-γ1pedc) show no GRASP change after sleep deprivation. These compartment-specific variations in the effects of sleep on both memory and synaptic distribution further indicate that local MB zones may follow distinct plasticity rules under physiological stressors, including sleep loss (Weiss, 2021).

Additionally, GRASP signal from KCs to APL is significantly elevated following sleep loss, suggesting a strengthening of KC > APL connections. KCs and APL form a negative feedback circuit, where KCs activate APL and APL inhibits KCs: this feedback inhibition maintains sparseness of odor coding and odor specificity of memories (Weiss, 2021).

It is possible that KCs compensate for increased synaptic abundance accumulated during sleep loss by recruiting inhibition from APL. While further experimentation is needed to examine the role of these connections in the regulation of net synaptic strength during sleep loss, sleep deprivation results in increased cortical excitability in humans and rodents, and hyperexcitability is often counteracted by increased synaptic inhibition (Weiss, 2021).

Conversely, sleep loss reduces connectivity between KCs and DPM, a second large interneuron that may facilitate recurrent activity in the MB lobes. The current results also indicate that KC > MBON synaptic contacts exhibit a variety of changes in response to sleep deprivation. The specific KC > MBON connections that show significantly elevated or reduced GRASP signal in this study are not clearly assorted based on valence encoding, contribution to specific associative memory assays, or influence on sleep/wake regulation (Weiss, 2021).

Activity in several MB cell types, including α'/'β' KCs, MBON-γ5'β'2, MBON-γ2 α'1, DPM, and PAM DANs regulate sleep. The observation that KC > MBON-γ5'β'2a labeling is reduced with sleep loss complements previous observations of reduced electrical activity in MBON-γ5'β'2 following sleep deprivation (Weiss, 2021).

Other sleep-promoting MB neurons, however, such as DPM, do not show an overall increase in BRP abundance, suggesting either that other changes in excitability, synaptic drive, or post-synaptic adaptations might drive homeostatic sleep regulation in these cells or that distinct subsets of connections within the populations that were labelled in this study might be sleep regulatory. The compartment-to-compartment variance in KC > MBON responses to sleep loss also parallels previous findings that plasticity rules can vary between MBONs during heterosynaptic plasticity (Weiss, 2021).

While GRASP results suggest diverse changes in putative synaptic contacts with sleep loss, the functional effects of these changes require further study. It is important to note that a significant portion of MB synapses are composed of connections between either pairs or groups of KCs. The genetic strategies that were used in this study have prevented reliable visualization and quantification of these connections. As a result, the effect of sleep loss on KC > KC synapses has not been examined in this study but may comprise a portion of the increase in KC pre-synaptic abundance that was observed in this study. While these studies identify synaptic classes that exhibit altered GRASP labeling across sleep loss, future studies using super resolution imaging and/or physiology could examine the structural and molecular changes that underlie this plasticity. Connections between neurons in the MB may be also influenced by non-neuronal cell types, including astrocytes. Astrocytic contact with KCs can be reduced by sleep loss and astrocytic calcium levels correlate with sleep pressure, which suggests that astrocytic processes could be positioned to mediate sleep-dependent plasticity in the MB (Weiss, 2021).

The broad conservation of release machinery across active zones within and between cell types has simplified examination of pre-synaptic plasticity during sleep loss. Assays of both Hebbian and homeostatic plasticity have also identified a variety of post-synaptic adaptations. Interestingly, post-synaptic densities isolated from rodent cortex show significant reorganization of post-synaptic GluR5 receptors. This depends upon the activity of Homer and sleep-dependent phosphorylation of CaMKII and GluR1, that contribute to consolidation of visual cortex plasticity (Weiss, 2021).

Because MBONs exhibit post-synaptic plasticity during other contexts, including the formation of associative memories, sleep deprivation may also alter post-synaptic organization of MBONs or other cell types in the MB. Although the distribution of Dlg is not significantly changed by sleep loss, the rich variety of post-synaptic receptors for acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, and other signals in the MB requires development of additional reporters to examine these post-synaptic consequences of insufficient sleep in MB neurons. Additionally, while the data outline changes in pre-synaptic protein abundance and pre-synaptic KC contacts that result from sleep loss, the possibility that these synaptic changes may be accompanied by homeostatic compensation in neuronal excitability or firing patterns remains to be tested. Because sleep-deprived flies can recover the capacity to learn after only a brief nap, homeostatic adjustments in post-synaptic strength and/or excitability may permit MBs to compensate for pre-synaptic changes that appear to persist for at least 24 h after sleep deprivation. Further, recovery sleep or pharmacological sleep enhancement may not simply reverse the effects of sleep loss, and it is unclear how particular subsets of synaptic proteins or connections may be selected for removal during times of elevated sleep (Weiss, 2021).

The consequences of sleep loss on synaptic connectivity are not clearly understood, but previous work has found net changes in synaptic abundance or size across brain regions. This study characterized a diverse array of synaptic responses to sleep loss among different cell types within the same circuit. These findings may suggest that distinct cell types and connections within the MB are governed by heterogeneous plasticity rules during sleep disruption. While previous studies have characterized the synaptic effects of sleep history on individual cell types within plastic circuits, the data provide a more comprehensive understanding of the consequences of sleep loss on MB circuits. While this project outlines the local effects of sleep loss on MB connectivity, it is unclear whether specific neural subsets also drive BRP increases within other neuropil compartments of sleep-deprived brains (Weiss, 2021).

This study found an overall increase in the abundance of reporters for some, but not all, pre-synaptic proteins. These pre-synaptic changes are not distributed equally across all cell types: they are most pronounced in MB-intrinsic KCs. Further, output connections from KCs to different classes of synaptic partners show varying patterns of plasticity in MB sub-circuits that contribute to encoding odor valence, comprise recurrent feedback loops, or relay reinforcement signals. The results indicate that sleep loss may degrade MB-dependent memory by altering several different classes of synapses, but future studies will be required to test the specific roles of changes at individual synapse types and the mechanisms by which prolonged waking reorganizes MB connectivity (Weiss, 2021).

Sleep is a fundamental behavioral state important for survival and is universal in animals with sufficiently complex nervous systems. Biogenic amines like dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine have been shown to be critical for sleep regulation across species but the precise circuit mechanisms underlying how amines control persistence of sleep, arousal and wakefulness remain unclear. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, provides a powerful model system for the study of sleep and circuit mechanisms underlying state transitions and persistence of states to meet the organisms motivational and cognitive needs. In Drosophila, two neuropils in the central brain, the mushroom body (MB) and the central complex (CX) have been shown to influence sleep homeostasis and receive aminergic neuromodulator input critical to sleep-wake switch. Dopamine neurons (DANs) are prevalent neuromodulator inputs to the MB but the mechanisms by which they interact with and regulate sleep- and wake-promoting neurons within MB are unknown. This study investigated the role of subsets of PAM-DANs that signal wakefulness and project to wake-promoting compartments of the MB. This study found that PAM-DANs are GABA responsive and require GABA(A)-Rdl receptor in regulating sleep. In mapping the pathways downstream of PAM neurons innervating γ5 and β'2 MB compartments it was found that wakefulness is regulated by both DopR1 and DopR2 receptors in downstream Kenyon cells (KCs) and mushroom body output neurons (MBONs). Taken together, a dopamine modulated sleep microcircuit has been identified within the mushroom body that has previously been shown to convey information about positive and negative valence critical for memory formation. These studies will pave the way for understanding how flies balance sleep, wakefulness and arousal (Driscoll, 2021).

The central complex is one of the major brain regions that control sleep in Drosophila. However, the circuitry details of sleep regulation have not been elucidated yet. This study shows a novel sleep-regulating neuronal circuit in the protocerebral bridge (PB) of the central complex. Activation of the PB interneurons labeled by the R59E08-Gal4 and the PB columnar neurons with R52B10-Gal4 promoted sleep and wakefulness, respectively. A targeted GFP reconstitution across synaptic partners (t-GRASP) analysis demonstrated synaptic contact between these two groups of sleep-regulating PB neurons. Furthermore, it was found that activation of a pair of dopaminergic (DA) neurons projecting to the PB (T1 DA neurons) decreased sleep. The wake-promoting T1 DA neurons and the sleep-promoting PB interneurons formed close associations. Dopamine 2-like receptor (Dop2R) knockdown in the sleep-promoting PB interneurons increased sleep. These results indicated that the neuronal circuit in the PB, regulated by dopamine signaling, mediates sleep-wakefulness (Tomita, 2021).

Sleep is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms, which drive sleep after wakefulness, and a circadian clock, which confers the 24-h rhythm of sleep. These processes interact with each other to control the timing of sleep in a daily cycle as well as following sleep deprivation. However, the mechanisms by which they interact are poorly understood. These studies show that hugin (+) neurons, previously identified as neurons that function downstream of the clock to regulate rhythms of locomotor activity, are also targets of the sleep homeostat. Sleep deprivation decreases activity of hugin (+) neurons, likely to suppress circadian-driven activity during recovery sleep, and ablation of hugin (+) neurons promotes sleep increases generated by activation of the homeostatic sleep locus, the dorsal fan-shaped body (dFB). Also, mutations in peptides produced by the hugin (+) locus increase recovery sleep following deprivation. Transsynaptic mapping reveals that hugin (+) neurons feed back onto central clock neurons, which also show decreased activity upon sleep loss, in a Hugin peptide-dependent fashion. It is proposed that hugin (+) neurons integrate circadian and sleep signals to modulate circadian circuitry and regulate the timing of sleep (Schwarz, 2021).

Understanding how neural circuits underlie behaviour is challenging even in the connectome era because it requires a combination of anatomical and functional analyses. This is exemplified in the circuit underlying the light avoidance behaviour displayed by Drosophila melanogaster larvae. While this behaviour is robust and the nervous system relatively simple, the circuit is only partially delineated with some contradictions among studies. This study devised trans-Tango MkII, an offshoot of the transsynaptic circuit tracing tool trans-Tango, and implement it in anatomical tracing together with functional analysis. Neuronal inhibition was used to test necessity of particular neuronal types in light avoidance and selective neuronal activation to examine sufficiency in rescuing light avoidance deficiencies exhibited by photoreceptor mutants. These studies reveal a four-order circuit for light avoidance connecting the light-detecting photoreceptors with a pair of neuroendocrine cells via two types of clock neurons. This approach can be readily expanded to studying other circuits (Sorkac, 2022).

The study revealed a circuit consisting of four orders of neurons that connect the Rh5 photoreceptors to PTTH neurons via the 5th-LaN and DN2s. While this circuit mediates the response to bright light, the observation that DN1s are necessary for photophobic response only to low light intensity indicates the existence of an additional pathway for dim light. It is noteworthy that a third, independent system has been reported in which a gustatory receptor mediates photophobic response to high-intensity light in class IV multidendritic neurons. This study has no information as to at which level these pathways might meet, if at all, upstream of the motor neurons (Sorkac, 2022).

The results clarify several earlier studies regarding the role of Pdf-LaNs in light avoidance. In the current experiments, Pdf-LaNs are dispensable for light avoidance, yet their activation is attractive. A potential explanation is that Pdf-LaNs may modulate larval photophobia via inhibition, especially since adult Pdf-LaNs are glycinergic. In addition, the results contradict a previous study reporting that Pdf-LaNs are presynaptic to PTTH neurons. This study relied on a version of GRASP that is in fact not synaptic. Thus, the proposed connection could have been the result of a non-synaptic reconstitution of GFP due to proximity especially since reconstituted GFP was not observed using a synaptic version of GRASP. This result, however, does not rule out a Pdf-LaN-mediated inhibition of the light avoidance circuit from the Rh5 photoreceptors to PTTH neurons. It is conceivable that, alongside their roles in alternative circuits that mediate this behaviour, Pdf-LaNs play inhibitory roles in this circuit as well. Indeed, ablating Pdf-LaNs increases the activity in PTTH neurons as revealed by the GCaMP signal (Sorkac, 2022).

Our analysis of the robust light avoidance response in larvae exemplifies the importance of employing a comprehensive approach combining circuit tracing together with neuronal inhibition and activation to test necessity and sufficiency. Circuit epistasis analysis was made possible by trans-Tango MkII, a new version of trans-Tango that allows researchers to trace and manipulate neural circuits in Drosophila larvae. The combination of a robust and user-friendly genetic tool such as trans-Tango MkII with careful functional analysis constitutes a powerful approach that can be readily expanded to studying other circuits and behaviours (Sorkac, 2022).

Small poikilotherms such as the fruit fly Drosophila depend on absolute temperature measurements to identify external conditions that are above (hot) or below (cold) their preferred range and to react accordingly. Hot and cold temperatures have a different impact on fly activity and sleep, but the circuits and mechanisms that adjust behavior to specific thermal conditions are not well understood. This study use patch-clamp electrophysiology to show that internal thermosensory neurons located within the fly head capsule (the AC neurons(1)) function as a thermometer active in the hot range. ACs exhibit sustained firing rates that scale with absolute temperature-but only for temperatures above the fly's preferred ~25°C (i.e., "hot" temperature). ACs were identified in the fly brain connectome and demonstrate that they target a single class of circadian neurons, the LPNs.(2) LPNs receive excitatory drive from ACs and respond robustly to hot stimuli, but their responses do not exclusively rely on ACs. Instead, LPNs receive independent drive from thermosensory neurons of the fly antenna via a new class of second-order projection neurons (TPN-IV). Finally, silencing LPNs blocks the restructuring of daytime "siesta" sleep, which normally occurs in response to persistent heat. Previous work described a distinct thermometer circuit for cold temperature.(3) Together, the results demonstrate that the fly nervous system separately encodes and relays absolute hot and cold temperature information, show how patterns of sleep and activity can be adapted to specific temperature conditions, and illustrate how persistent drive from sensory pathways can impact behavior on extended temporal scales (Alpert, 2022).

Homeostatic and circadian processes collaborate to appropriately time and consolidate sleep and wake. To understand how these processes are integrated, brief sleep deprivation was scheduled at different times of day in Drosophila, and elevated morning rebound was compared to evening. These effects depend on discrete morning and evening clock neurons, independent of their roles in circadian locomotor activity. In the R5 ellipsoid body sleep homeostat, this study identified elevated morning expression of activity dependent and presynaptic gene expression as well as the presynaptic protein BRUCHPILOT consistent with regulation by clock circuits. These neurons also display elevated calcium levels in response to sleep loss in the morning, but not the evening consistent with the observed time-dependent sleep rebound. These studies reveal the circuit and molecular mechanisms by which discrete circadian clock neurons program a homeostatic sleep center (Andreani, 2022).

Sleep is characterized by quiescence, increased arousal thresholds, changes in neuronal activity, and circadian and homeostatic regulation. Flies display each of these hallmarks and have simple, well-characterized circadian and sleep neural networks. About 150 central pacemaker neurons that express molecular clocks. Of these, four small ventral lateral neurons (sLNvs) (per hemisphere) that express pigment dispersing factor (PDF) are necessary for driving morning activity in anticipation of lights on and exhibit peak levels of calcium around dawn (~ZT0). The dorsal lateral neurons (LNds) and a 5th PDF- sLNv are necessary for evening anticipation of lights off and show a corresponding evening calcium peak (ZT8-ZT10). The posterior DN1 (DN1ps) consist of glutamate-positive (Glu+) subsets necessary for morning anticipation and Glu- necessary for evening anticipation under low light conditions. Lateral posterior neurons (LPN) are not necessary for anticipation but are uniquely sensitive to temperature cycling. Specific pacemaker subsets have been linked to wake promotion [PDF+ large LNv, diuretic hormone 31 (DH31+) DN1ps] and sleep promotion (Glu+ DN1ps, Allostatin A+ LPNs), independently of their clock functions. How these neurons regulate homeostatic sleep drive itself remains unsettled (Andreani, 2022).

Timed signaling from these clock neurons converges on the neuropil of the ellipsoid body (EB). The sLNvs and LNds appear to communicate to R5 EB neurons through an intermediate set of dopaminergic PPM3 neurons based largely on correlated calcium oscillations. The anterior projecting subset of DN1ps provide sleep promoting input to other EB neurons (R2/R4M) via tubercular bulbar (TuBu) interneurons. Activation of a subset of these TuBu neurons synchronizes the activity of the R5 neurons which is important for sleep maintenance. Critically, the R5 neurons are at the core of sleep homeostasis in Drosophila. R5 neuronal activity is both necessary and sufficient for sleep rebound. Extended sleep deprivation (12-24 hr) elevates calcium, the critical presynaptic protein BRUCHPILOT (BRP), and action potential firing rates in R5 neurons. The changes in BRP in this region not only reflect increased sleep drive following sleep deprivation (SD) but also knockdown (KD) of brp in R5 decreases rebound suggesting it functions directly in regulating sleep homeostasis. R5 neurons stimulate downstream neurons in the dorsal fan-shaped body (dFB), which are sufficient to produce sleep. Yet how the activity of key clock neurons are integrated with signals from the R5 homeostat to determine sleep drive remains unclear (Andreani, 2022).

This study dissect the link between the circadian and homeostatic drives by examining which clock neural circuits regulate sleep rebound at different times of day in Drosophila. Akin to the forced desynchrony protocols, wakefulness was enforced at different times of day and sleep rebound was assessed. Flies were exposed to 7 hr cycles of sleep deprivation and recovery, enabling assessment of homeostasis at every hour of the day. It was found that rebound is suppressed in the evening in a Clk-dependent manner. Time-dependent rebound was demonstrated to be is mediated by specific subsets of pacemaker neurons, independently of their effects on locomotor activity. Moreover, homeostatic R5 EB neurons integrate circadian timing and homeostatic drive; it was demonstrated that activity dependent and presynaptic gene expression, BRP expression, neuronal output, and wake sensitive calcium levels are all elevated in the morning compared to the evening, providing an underlying mechanism for clock programming of time-of-day dependent homeostasis (Andreani, 2022).

This study describes the neural circuit and molecular mechanisms by which discrete populations of the circadian clock network program the R5 sleep homeostat to control the homeostatic response to sleep loss. A novel protocol was developed to administer brief duration SD and robustly measure homeostatic rebound sleep. Using this strategy, it was demonstrated that homeostatic rebound is significantly higher in the morning than in the evening. Distinct subsets were identified of the circadian clock network and their downstream neural targets that mediate the enhancement and suppression of morning and evening rebound respectively. Using unbiased transcriptomics very little gene expression was observed that was significantly altered in response to the 2.5 hr sleep deprivation. On the other hand,elevated expression of activity-dependent and presynaptic genes were identified in the morning, independent of sleep deprivation. Consistent with this finding, elevated levels of the presynaptic protein BRP were observed that was absent in the absence of Clk. These baseline changes are accompanied by an elevated calcium response to sleep deprivation in the morning mirroring the enhanced behavioral rebound in the morning. Taken together, these data support the model of a circadian regulated homeostat that turns the homeostat up late at night to sustain sleep and down late in the day to sustain wake (Andreani, 2022).

These studies suggest that homeostatic drive in the R5 neurons is stored post-transcriptionally. As part of these studies, a novel protocol was developed using minimal amounts of SD which could be useful for minimizing mechanical stress effects and isolating underlying molecular processes crucial for sleep homeostasis. Six to 24 hr of SD in Drosophila is commonly used despite the potential stressful or even lethal effects. This study demonstrates that shorter 2.5 hr deprivations not only induce a robust rebound sleep response, but also the percent of sleep lost recovered at ZT0 is close to 100% versus 14-35% seen in 12 hr SD protocols. Using this shorter SD, it was found that many effects observed in R5 neurons with 12 hr SD (e.g. increased BRP and upregulation of Nmdar subunits) are no longer observed with shorter SD, even though the necessity of R5 neurons for rebound is retained after 2.5 hr SD. Previously, translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) was used to show upregulation of nmdar subunits following 12 hr SD.FACS and TRAP are distinct methodologies for targeted collection of RNA for sequencing and can yield unique gene lists. One possibility is that upregulation of nmdar subunits is occurring locally in neuronal processes, which are often lost during FACS, and/or is at the level of translation initiation or elongation. Nonetheless, in agreement with previous work, this study observed SD-induced increases in calcium correlated with behavioral rebound in the morning, suggesting that this process is a core feature of the cellular homeostatic response (Andreani, 2022).

Using genetically targeted 'loss-of-function' manipulations, this study has defined small subsets of circadian clock neurons and downstream circuits that are necessary for intact clock modulation of sleep homeostasis. The use of intersectional approaches enabled highly resolved targeting not possible with traditional lesioning experiments in the SCN. Collectively these studies defined a potential Glu+ DN1p-TuBu-R4m circuit important for enhancing morning rebound as well as a discrete group of LNds important for suppressing evening rebound. Importantly, most of these effects on sleep rebound are evident in the absence of substantial changes in baseline activity, despite other studies indicating their necessity for normal circadian behavior. Of note, the proposed roles of the DN1p and LNd clock neurons are sleep and wake promotion consistent with the current findings after sleep deprivation. It is hypothesized that by using chronic silencing methods, baseline effects may not be evident due to compensatory changes but that these effects are only revealed when the system is challenged by sleep deprivation. Similar genetic strategies in mammals may be useful in uncovering which SCN neurons are driving circadian regulation of sleep homeostasis given the comparable suppression of sleep rebound in the evening in humans. Nonetheless, the finding of sleep homeostasis phenotypes in the absence of significant baseline effects suggests that a major role of these clock neuron subsets may be to manage homeostatic responses (Andreani, 2022).

These studies suggest that circadian and homeostatic processes do not compete for influence on a downstream neural target but that the circadian clock programs the homeostat itself. Using an unbiased transcriptomic approach, this study discovered time-dependent expression of activity dependent and presynaptic genes, consistent with previous data that the R5 neurons exhibit time-dependent activity. Significant upregulation was observed of several genes involved in synaptic transmission (Syx1a, Rim, nSyb, unc-104, Srpk79D, para, CG5890) evincing a permissive active state for R5 neurons in the morning. This is accompanied by elevated levels of the key presynaptic protein BRP in the morning compared to evening. It is notable that elevated BRP in the morning is the opposite of what would be expected based on a sleep-dependent reduction in BRP proposed by the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, suggesting a sleep-wake independent mechanism. Previous studies have shown that modulation of BRP levels in the R5 are important for its sleep function, suggesting that changes in BRP levels impact R5 function. It is hypothesized that these baseline transcriptomic changes underlie the differential R5 sensitivity to sleep deprivation is evident as calcium increases in the morning and not the evening. Indeed, trancriptomic and proteomic studies of the mouse forebrain across time and after sleep deprivation are consistent with the model that the circadian clock programs the transcriptome while homeostatic process function post-trranscriptionally , paralleling what this study has found for R5. It will be of great interest to understand the circuit and molecular mechanisms by which circadian clocks regulate the R5 neuronal calcium and synaptic properties and whether similar circuit architectures underlie daily mammalian sleep-wake (Andreani, 2022).

The mushroom body lobes are tiled by discrete anatomic compartments defined by the axons of a specific subset of DANs and the dendrites of one or two mushroom body output neurons (MBONs). This anatomical arrangement positions DANs to strategically convey positive and negative reinforced information by changing the synaptic weight of KC-MBONs in producing aversive and appetitive responses (Driscoll, 2021).

While, the most in-depth analysis of these synapses and distinct DAN-KC-MBON connectivity and behavioral output comes from studies of olfactory conditioning, there is evidence that these synapses play a critical role in innate behaviors like feeding and sleep. Although, role of DA on sleep has been extensively investigated in Drosophila, the commonly used TH-Gal4 driver line labels most dopamine neuron clusters, but is absent from the several PAM clusters that projects to MB (Driscoll, 2021).

This study specifically probed PAM subsets that project to γ5, γ4, and β'2 MB compartments. This study focused on this subset because KCs and MBONs downstream of these PAM neurons can be neuroanatomically resolved and have been shown to be required for wakefulness. Further, KCs and MBONs that form the γ5, γ4, and β'2 synaptic compartments alter their spontaneous neural activity in response to sleep need (induced by mechanical sleep-deprivation). The ability to use cell-specific split-GAL4 tools provides opportunity to resolve the precise circuit mechanisms by which PAM neurons regulate wakefulness (Driscoll, 2021).

GABA signaling also modulates sleep and wake microcircuits within MB. The key source of GABA in the MB is anterior paired lateral neurons, APL and dorsal paired medial neurons (DPM), which are electrically coupled and increase sleep by GABAergic inhibition of wake-promoting KCs. In the context of associative learning, there is strong evidence for interactions between KCs, APL, DPM and DANs but it is not clear if GABA and dopamine signaling represent opposing inputs to the KCs and MBONs in the regulation of sleep. This study found that the excitability of PAM DANs involved in wakefulness is blocked by sleep-promoting GABA signaling and mediated by ionotropic receptor subtype GABAA-Rdl (Driscoll, 2021).

A recent study showed that GABA inhibitory input to the presynaptic terminals of the PAM neurons regulates appetitive memory and that this interaction is mediated by GABA-B3 receptors that are clustered in PAM boutons localized to PAM-γ5 and -α1 compartments. These data are consistent with the findings that PAM-γ5 are GABA responsive and that multiple receptors are critical to this interaction. Since, no role was found for GABA-B3 in PAM mediated sleep regulation, it is likely that PAM γ5, γ4, and β'2 express multiple GABA receptors which are differentially recruited in sleep and learning. How and what regulates the expression of these receptors in PAM subsets presents a potential mechanism of presynaptic gating to MB core circuits. Transcriptomic analysis of PAM neurons reveals extremely high levels of Rdl expression followed by GABA-B3. Among the PAM subsets mean TPM or transcripts per million of Rdl receptor in PAM γ5, γ4, and β'2 are much higher as compared to other PAM subsets (Driscoll, 2021).

Simple connection query search of the recently released hemibrain data85 reveals there is significant bidirectional connectivity between APL, DPM, and PAM neurons. Further, a recent study showed that APL neurons express the inhibitory D2R receptor55. APL mediated GABAergic inhibition of the PAM neurons was recently shown to control the intensity and specificity of olfactory appetitive memory but previous results show that blocking GABA release from APL neurons only modestly affects sleep phenotypes (Driscoll, 2021).

While, the role of APL in GABA signaling to PAM γ5, γ4, and β'2 cannot be completely ruled out, other inputs to wake-regulating PAM DANs could also be GABAergic and critical for promoting sleep. A recent study using EM dataset of a Full Adult Female Fly Brain (FAFB) mapped the inputs and outputs of the PAMγ5 DANs and identified that this cell type is highly heterogenous and in addition to recurrent feedback from MBON01 γ5β'2a, it receives extensive input from other MBONs, sub-esophageal output neurons (SEZONs) and lateral horn output neurons86. The EM data also reveals that octopaminergic neurons synapse onto PAM γ5, γ4, and β'2 DANs. Whether, these inputs play a role in wakefulness is unknown but suggests that the PAMγ5 could serve as a key link between sensory inputs, wake-promoting octopamine signal and core sleep regulating circuitry within the MB. Each of these inputs could modulate PAM-DAN activity and dopamine release in regulating wakefulness via the MB (Driscoll, 2021).

In addition to probing the release and activity of these PAM-DANs the dopamine receptors and their location within the MB in signaling wakefulness were also explored. To this end validated RNAi lines were expressed in subsets of KCs and MBONs; DopR1 and DopR2 were found to be critical in mediating the wakefulness signal via KCs and γ5β'2 MBONs. Knocking down the receptor consistently increased total sleep and bout length. Furthermore, specific manipulations of DopR receptors within the MB did not directly alter locomotor activity as observed by manipulation of these receptors in CX. Although, loss-of-function mutations of D1 dopamine receptor DopR are shown to enhance repetitive air puff startle-induced arousal and increase sleep. Expression and restoration of DopR in the mutant background specifically in the central complex rescues the startle response, while, the sleep phenotype is rescued via a broad MB driver. The current data extends these findings by showing that the DopR receptors regulate sleep via the MB γ5 and β'2 compartment. Although, targeted RNAi experiments show that DopR's are required for sleep regulation by KCs and MBONs, the lack of a sleep phenotype in DopR2 mutant could be a result of global loss of receptor in the mutant as opposed to targeted loss of receptor function within MB. Dopamine signals wakefulness by activation of wake-promoting neurons of MB via DopR1 and DopR2 and within. the central complex, neurons of dFB are inhibited by dopamine via DopR2. Hence, DopR2 has opposing effects within MB and CX (Driscoll, 2021).

In vitro characterization indicates that DopR's signal through distinct G-proteins, with DopR1 via Gαs to stimulate cAMP production and DopR2 coupling to Gαq via increased calcium. These receptors are thought to have differential sensitivity to dopamine and could be potentially recruited by varying DA release or DAN activity. In the context of sleep regulation, this work reveals that both DopR1 and DopR2 induce wakefulness via the γ5 β'2 MB compartment but not γ4 compartment. Although, chronic activation of PAM γ4 induces wakefulness, the glutamatergic MBON γ4 < γ1,2 projects to multiple compartments and could potentially activate or inhibit MBONs and PAMs projecting to γ1 and γ2 compartment. The interaction between compartments is not well understood in the context of sleep and wake regulation and requires further investigation to better understand the role of DopR2 in regulating the γ4 compartment. The neuroanatomical specificity obtained from split-Gal4 lines combined with EM data has paved way for more detailed analysis of the role of dopamine signaling to MB in the context of sleep and other behaviors (Driscoll, 2021).

The sleep-regulating PAM DANs and associated KCs and MBONs identified in this study are also involved in mediating satiety, novelty, caffeine induced arousal, punishment and reward associated experiences suggesting that the activity of these neurons is tuned to several wake and arousal associated behaviors. This is further supported by the EM connectome data showing that MB receives extensive gustatory, auditory and visual input in addition to olfactory input (Driscoll, 2021).

Current models of sleep regulation rely on two main processes, the circadian clock and the sleep homeostat and don't completely account for multiple external and internal factors that influence wakefulness. The ability to sleep, however, is influenced by motivational or cognitive stimuli. It is therefore envisioned that sleep, wakefulness and arousal within MB are not located in distinct circuits, but rather mediated by distinct processes within a common circuit (Driscoll, 2021).

Time-restricted feeding (TRF) has recently gained interest as a potential anti-ageing treatment for organisms from Drosophila to humans. TRF restricts food intake to specific hours of the day. Because TRF controls the timing of feeding, rather than nutrient or caloric content, TRF has been hypothesized to depend on circadian-regulated functions; the underlying molecular mechanisms of its effects remain unclear. To exploit the genetic tools and well-characterized ageing markers of Drosophila, this study developed an intermittent TRF (iTRF) dietary regimen that robustly extended fly lifespan and delayed the onset of ageing markers in the muscles and gut. iTRF enhanced circadian-regulated transcription, and iTRF-mediated lifespan extension required both circadian regulation and autophagy, a conserved longevity pathway. Night-specific induction of autophagy was both necessary and sufficient to extend lifespan on an ad libitum diet and also prevented further iTRF-mediated lifespan extension. By contrast, day-specific induction of autophagy did not extend lifespan. Thus, these results identify circadian-regulated autophagy as a critical contributor to iTRF-mediated health benefits in Drosophila. Because both circadian regulation and autophagy are highly conserved processes in human ageing, this work highlights the possibility that behavioural or pharmaceutical interventions that stimulate circadian-regulated autophagy might provide people with similar health benefits, such as delayed ageing and lifespan extension (Ulgherait, 2021).

Sleep remains a major mystery of biology. In particular, little is known about the mechanisms that account for the drive to sleep. In an unbiased screen of more than 12,000 Drosophila lines, identified a single gene, nemuri (CG31813), that induces sleep. The NEMURI protein is an antimicrobial peptide that can be secreted ectopically to drive prolonged sleep (with resistance to arousal) and to promote survival after infection. Loss of nemuri increased arousability during daily sleep and attenuated the acute increase in sleep induced by sleep deprivation or bacterial infection. Conditions that increase sleep drive induced expression of nemuri in a small number of fly brain neurons and targeted it to the sleep-promoting, dorsal fan-shaped body. It is proposed that NEMURI is a bona fide sleep homeostasis factor that is particularly important under conditions of high sleep need; because these conditions include sickness, these findings provide a link between sleep and immune function (Toda, 2019).

Sleep-like states in diverse organisms can be separated into distinct stages, each with a characteristic arousal threshold. However, the molecular pathways underlying different sleep stages remain unclear. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, exhibits consolidated sleep during both day and night, with night sleep associated with higher arousal thresholds compared to day sleep. This study identified a role for the neuronal calcium sensor protein Neurocalcin (NCA) in promoting sleep during the night but not the day by suppressing nocturnal arousal and hyperactivity. Both circadian and light-sensing pathways define the temporal window in which NCA promotes sleep. Furthermore, NCA promotes sleep by suppressing synaptic release from a dispersed wake-promoting neural network and the mushroom bodies, a sleep-regulatory center, are a module within this network. These results advance the understanding of how sleep stages are genetically defined (ChenK, 2019).

Sleep is an ancient animal behavior that is regulated similarly in species ranging from flies to humans. Various genes that regulate sleep have been identified in invertebrates, but whether the functions of these genes are conserved in mammals remains poorly explored. Drosophila insomniac (inc) mutants exhibit severely shortened and fragmented sleep. Inc protein physically associates with the Cullin-3 (Cul3) ubiquitin ligase, and neuronal depletion of Inc or Cul3 strongly curtails sleep, suggesting that Inc is a Cul3 adaptor that directs the ubiquitination of neuronal substrates that impact sleep. Three proteins similar to Inc exist in vertebrates-KCTD2, KCTD5, and KCTD17-but are uncharacterized within the nervous system and their functional conservation with Inc has not been addressed. This study shows that Inc and its mouse orthologs exhibit striking biochemical and functional interchangeability within Cul3 complexes. Remarkably, KCTD2 and KCTD5 restore sleep to inc mutants, indicating that they can substitute for Inc in vivo and engage its neuronal targets relevant to sleep. Inc and its orthologs localize similarly within fly and mammalian neurons and can traffic to synapses, suggesting that their substrates may include synaptic proteins. Consistent with such a mechanism, inc mutants exhibit defects in synaptic structure and physiology, indicating that Inc is essential for both sleep and synaptic function. These findings reveal that molecular functions of Inc are conserved through ~600 million years of evolution and support the hypothesis that Inc and its orthologs participate in an evolutionarily conserved ubiquitination pathway that links synaptic function and sleep regulation (Li, 2017).

The presence of sleep states in diverse animals has been suggested to reflect a common purpose for sleep and the conservation of underlying regulatory mechanisms. This study has shown that attributes of the Insomniac protein likely to underlie its impact on sleep in Drosophila-its ability to function as a multimeric Cul3 adaptor and engage neuronal targets that impact sleep-are functionally conserved in its mammalian orthologs. This comparative analysis of Inc family members in vertebrate and invertebrate neurons furthermore reveals that these proteins can traffic to synapses and that Inc itself is essential for normal synaptic structure and excitability. These findings support the hypothesis that Inc family proteins serve as Cul3 adaptors and direct the ubiquitination of conserved neuronal substrates that impact sleep and synaptic function (Li, 2017).

The ability of KCTD2 and KCTD5 to substitute for Inc in the context of sleep is both surprising and notable given the complexity of sleep-wake behavior and the likely functions of these proteins as Cul3 adaptors. Adaptors are multivalent proteins that self-associate, bind Cul3, and recruit substrates, and these interactions are further regulated by additional post-translational mechanisms. The findings indicate that KCTD2 and KCTD5 readily substitute for Inc within oligomeric Inc-Cul3 complexes, and strongly suggest that these proteins recapitulate other aspects of Inc function in vivo including the ability to engage neuronal targets that impact sleep. The simplest explanation for why KCTD2 and KCTD5 have retained the apparent ability to engage Inc targets despite the evolutionary divergence of Drosophila and mammals is that orthologs of Inc targets are themselves conserved in mammals. This inference draws support from manipulations of Drosophila Roadkill/HIB and its mammalian ortholog SPOP, Cul3 adaptors of the MATH-BTB family that regulate the conserved Hedgehog signaling pathway. While the ability of SPOP to substitute for HIB has not been assessed by rescue at an organismal level, clonal analysis in Drosophila indicates that ectopically expressed mouse SPOP can degrade the endogenous HIB substrate Cubitus Interruptus (Ci), and conversely, that HIB can degrade mammalian Gli proteins that are the conserved orthologs of Ci and substrates of SPOP. By analogy, Inc targets that impact sleep are likely to have orthologs in vertebrates that are recruited by KCTD2 and KCTD5 to Cul3 complexes. While the manipulations do not resolve whether KCTD17 can substitute for Inc in vivo, the ability of KCTD17 to assemble with fly Inc and Cul3 suggests that functional divergence among mouse Inc orthologs may arise outside of the BTB domain, and in particular may reflect properties of their C-termini including the ability to recruit substrates (Li, 2017).

The finding that Inc can transit to synapses and is required for normal synaptic function is intriguing in light of hypotheses that invoke synaptic homeostasis as a key function of sleep. While ubiquitin-dependent mechanisms contribute to synaptic function and plasticity and sleep is known to influence synaptic remodeling in both vertebrates and invertebrates, molecular links between ubiquitination, synapses, and sleep remain poorly explored. Other studies in flies have indicated that regulation of RNA metabolism may similarly couple synaptic function and the control of sleep. Alterations in the activity of the Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMR), a regulator of mRNA translation, cause defects in the elaboration of neuronal projections and the formation of synapses as well as changes in sleep duration and consolidation. Loss of Adar, a deaminase that edits RNA, leads to increased sleep through altered glutamatergic synaptic function. Like Inc, these proteins are conserved in mammals, suggesting that further studies in flies may provide insights into diverse mechanisms by which sleep influences synaptic function and conversely, how changes in synapses may impact the regulation of sleep (Li, 2017).

These findings at a model synapse suggest that the impact of Inc on synaptic function may be intimately linked to its influence on sleep but do not yet resolve important aspects of such a mechanism. The synaptic phenotypes of inc mutants-increased synaptic growth, decreased evoked neurotransmitter release, and modest effects on spontaneous neurotransmission-are qualitatively distinct from those of other short sleeping mutants. Shaker (Sh) and Hyperkinetic (Hk) mutations decrease sleep in adults but increase both excitability and synaptic growth at the NMJ, suggesting that synaptic functions of Inc may affect sleep by a mechanism different than broad neuronal hyperexcitability. While a parsimonious model is that Inc directs the ubiquitination of a target critical for synaptic transmission both at the larval NMJ and in neuronal populations that promote sleep, this hypothesis awaits the elucidation of Inc targets, definition of the temporal requirements of Inc activity, and further mapping of the neuronal populations through which Inc impacts sleep. Finally, determining the localization of endogenous Inc within neurons is essential to distinguish possible presynaptic and postsynaptic functions of Inc and whether Inc engages local synaptic proteins or extrasynaptic targets that ultimately influence synaptic function (Li, 2017).

A clear implication of these findings is that neuronal targets and synaptic functions of Inc may be conserved in other animals. While the impact of Inc orthologs on sleep in vertebrates is as yet unknown, findings from C. elegans support the notion that conserved molecular functions of Inc and Cul3 may underlie similar behavioral outputs in diverse organisms. INSO-1/C52B11.2, the only C. elegans ortholog of Inc, interacts with Cul3, and RNAi against Cul3 and INSO-1 reduces the duration of lethargus, a quiescent sleep-like state, suggesting that effects of Cul3- and Inc-dependent ubiquitination on sleep may be evolutionarily conserved. The functions of Inc orthologs and Cul3 in the mammalian nervous system await additional characterization, but emerging data suggest functions relevant to neuronal physiology and disease. Human mutations at the KCTD2/ATP5H locus are associated with Alzheimer's disease, and mutations of KCTD17 with myoclonic dystonia. Cul3 lesions have been associated in several studies with autism spectrum disorders and comorbid sleep disturbances. More generally, autism spectrum disorders are commonly associated with sleep deficits and are thought to arise in many cases from altered synaptic function, but molecular links to sleep remain fragmentary. Studies of Inc family members and their conserved functions in neurons are likely to broaden understanding of how ubiquitination pathways may link synaptic function to the regulation of sleep and other behaviors (Li, 2017).

There is considerable variation in sleep duration, timing and quality in human populations, and sleep dysregulation has been implicated as a risk factor for a range of health problems. Human sleep traits are known to be regulated by genetic factors, but also by an array of environmental and social factors. These uncontrolled, non-genetic effects complicate powerful identification of the loci contributing to sleep directly in humans. The model system, Drosophila melanogaster, exhibits a behavior that shows the hallmarks of mammalian sleep, and this study used a multitiered approach, encompassing high-resolution QTL mapping, expression QTL data, and functional validation with RNAi to investigate the genetic basis of sleep under highly controlled environmental conditions. A battery of sleep phenotypes was measured in >750 genotypes derived from a multiparental mapping panel and identified several, modest-effect QTL contributing to natural variation for sleep. Merging sleep QTL data with a large head transcriptome eQTL mapping dataset from the same population allowed refining the list of plausible candidate causative sleep loci. This set includes genes with previously characterized effects on sleep and circadian rhythms, in addition to novel candidates. Finally, adult, nervous system-specific RNAi was used on the Dopa decarboxylase, dyschronic, and timeless genes, finding significant effects on sleep phenotypes for all three. The genes resolved in this study are strong candidates to harbor causative, regulatory variation contributing to sleep (Smith, 2020).

Most animals restrict their activity to a specific part of the day, being diurnal, nocturnal or crepuscular. The genetic basis underlying diurnal preference is largely unknown. Under laboratory conditions, Drosophila melanogaster is crepuscular, showing a bi-modal activity profile. However, a survey of strains derived from wild populations indicated that high variability among individuals exists, including flies that are nocturnal. Using a highly diverse population, an artificial selection experiment was performed, selecting flies with extreme diurnal or nocturnal preference. After 10 generations, highly diurnal and nocturnal strains were obtained. Whole-genome expression analysis was used to identify differentially expressed genes in diurnal, nocturnal and crepuscular (control) flies. Other than one circadian clock gene (pdp1), most differentially expressed genes were associated with either clock output (pdf, to) or input (Rh3, Rh2, msn). This finding was congruent with behavioural experiments indicating that both light masking and the circadian pacemaker are involved in driving nocturnality. This study demonstrates that genetic variation segregating in wild populations contributes to substantial variation in diurnal preference. Candidate genes associated with diurnality/nocturnality, while data emerging from expression analysis and behavioural experiments suggest that both clock and clock-independent pathways are involved in shaping diurnal preference. The diurnal and nocturnal selection strains provide us with a unique opportunity to understand the genetic architecture of diurnal preference (Pegoraro, 2020).

MiRNAs have attracted more attention in recent years as regulators of sleep and circadian rhythms after their roles in circadian rhythm and sleep were discovered. This study explored the roles of the miR-276a on daily sleep in Drosophila melanogaster, and found a regulatory cycle for the miR-276a pathway, in which miR-276a, regulated by the core CLOCK/CYCLE (CLK/CYC) transcription factor upstream, regulates sleep via suppressing targets TIM and NPFR1. (a) Loss of miR-276a function makes the flies sleep more during both daytime and nighttime, while flies with gain of miR-276a function sleep less; (b) MiR-276a is widely expressed in the mushroom body (MB), the pars intercerebralis (PI) and some clock neurons lateral dorsal neurons (LNds), in which tim neurons is important for sleep regulation; (c) MiR-276a promoter is identified to locate in the 8th fragment (aFrag8) of the pre-miR-276a, and this fragment is directly activated and regulated by CLK/CYC; (4) MiR-276a is rhythmically oscillating in heads of the wild-type w(1118), but this oscillation disappears in the loss of function mutant clk(jrk) ; (5) The neuropeptide F receptor 1 (npfr1) was found to be a downstream target of miR-276a. These results clarify that the miR-276a is a very important factor for sleep regulation (Zhang, 2021).

Sleep is a crucial factor for health and survival in all animals. This study found by proteomic analysis that some cancer related proteins were impacted by the circadian clock. The 14-3-3ε protein, expression of which is activated by the circadian transcription factor Clock, regulates adult sleep of Drosophila independent of circadian rhythm. Detailed analysis of the sleep regulatory mechanism shows that 14-3-3ε directly targets the Ultrabithorax (Ubx) gene to activate transcription of the pigment dispersing factor (PDF). The dopamine receptor (Dop1R1) and the octopamine receptor (Oamb), are also involved in the 14-3-3ε pathway, which in 14-3-3ε mutant flies causes increases in the dopR1 and OAMB, while downregulation of the DopR1 and Oamb can restore the sleep phenotype caused by the 14-3-3ε mutation. In conclusion, 14-3-3ε is necessary for sleep regulation in Drosophila (Wei, 2021).

Circadian transcriptional timekeepers in pacemaker neurons drive profound daily rhythms in sleep and wake. This study revealed a molecular pathway that links core transcriptional oscillators to neuronal and behavioral rhythms. Using two independent genetic screens, mutants of Transport and Golgi organization 10 (Tango10) were identified with poor behavioral rhythmicity. Tango10 expression in pacemaker neurons expressing the neuropeptide PIGMENT-DISPERSING FACTOR (PDF) is required for robust rhythms. Loss of Tango10 results in elevated PDF accumulation in nerve terminals even in mutants lacking a functional core clock. TANGO10 protein itself is rhythmically expressed in PDF terminals. Mass spectrometry of TANGO10 complexes reveals interactions with the E3 ubiquitin ligase CULLIN 3 (CUL3). CUL3 depletion phenocopies Tango10 mutant effects on PDF even in the absence of the core clock gene timeless. Patch clamp electrophysiology in Tango10 mutant neurons demonstrates elevated spontaneous firing potentially due to reduced voltage-gated Shaker-like potassium currents. It is proposed that Tango10/Cul3 transduces molecular oscillations from the core clock to neuropeptide release important for behavioral rhythms (Lee, 2021).

Disrupted circadian rhythms is a prominent feature of multiple neurodegenerative diseases. Yet mechanisms linking Tau (see Drosophila Tau) to rhythmic behavior remain unclear. This study found that expression of a phosphomimetic human Tau mutant (TauE14) in Drosophila circadian pacemaker neurons disrupts free-running rhythmicity. While cell number and oscillations of the core clock protein PERIOD are unaffected in the small LNv (sLNv) neurons important for free running rhythms, a near complete loss of the major LNv neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor (PDF) in the dorsal axonal projections of the sLNvs. This was accompanied by a ~ 50% reduction in the area of the dorsal terminals and a modest decrease in cell body PDF levels. Expression of wild-type Tau also reduced axonal PDF levels but to a lesser extent than TauE14. TauE14 also induces a complete loss of mitochondria from these sLNv projections. However, mitochondria were increased in sLNv cell bodies in TauE14 flies. These results suggest that TauE14 disrupts axonal transport of neuropeptides and mitochondria in circadian pacemaker neurons, providing a mechanism by which Tau can disrupt circadian behavior prior to cell loss (Zhang, 2021).

The mechanisms that generate robust ionic oscillation in circadian pacemaker neurons are under investigation. This study demonstrates critical functions of the mitochondrial cation antiporter leucine zipper-EF-hand-containing transmembrane protein 1 (LETM1), which exchanges K(+)/H(+) in Drosophila and Ca(2+)/H(+) in mammals, in circadian pacemaker neurons. Letm1 knockdown in Drosophila pacemaker neurons reduced circadian cytosolic H(+) rhythms and prolonged nuclear PERIOD/TIMELESS expression rhythms and locomotor activity rhythms. In rat pacemaker neurons in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), circadian rhythms in cytosolic Ca(2+) and Bmal1 transcription were dampened by Letm1 knockdown. Mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake peaks late during the day were also observed in rat SCN neurons following photolytic elevation of cytosolic Ca(2+). Since cation transport by LETM1 is coupled to mitochondrial energy synthesis, it is proposed that LETM1 integrates metabolic, ionic, and molecular clock rhythms in the central clock system in both invertebrates and vertebrates (Morioka, 2022).

Statins, HMG Coenzyme A Reductase (HMGCR) inhibitors, are a first-line therapy, used to reduce hypercholesterolemia and the risk for cardiovascular events. While sleep disturbances are recognized as a side-effect of statin treatment, the impact of statins on sleep is under debate. Using Drosophila, this study discovered a novel role for Hmgcr in sleep modulation. Loss of pan-neuronal Hmgcr expression affects fly sleep behavior, causing a decrease in sleep latency and an increase in sleep episode duration. The pars intercerebralis (PI), equivalent to the mammalian hypothalamus, was identified as the region within the fly brain requiring Hmgcr activity for proper sleep maintenance. Lack of Hmgcr expression in the PI insulin-producing cells recapitulates the sleep effects of pan-neuronal Hmgcr knockdown. Conversely, loss of Hmgcr in a different PI subpopulation, the corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) homologue-expressing neurons (DH44 neurons), increases sleep latency and decreases sleep duration. Interestingly, loss of Hmgcr in the PI does not affect circadian rhythm, suggesting that Hmgcr regulates sleep by pathways distinct from the circadian clock. Taken together, these findings suggest that Hmgcr activity in the PI is essential for proper sleep homeostasis in flies (Alsehli, 2022).

The regulation of sleep and metabolism are highly interconnected, and dysregulation of sleep is linked to metabolic diseases that include obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. Furthermore, both acute and long-term changes in diet potently impact sleep duration and quality. To identify novel factors that modulate interactions between sleep and metabolic state, a genetic screen was performed for their roles in regulating sleep duration, starvation resistance, and starvation-dependent modulation of sleep. This screen identified a number of genes with potential roles in regulating sleep, metabolism, or both processes. One such gene encodes the auxiliary ion channel UNC79, which was implicated in both the regulation of sleep and starvation resistance. Genetic knockdown or mutation of unc79 results in flies with increased sleep duration, as well as increased starvation resistance. Previous findings have shown that unc79 is required in pacemaker for 24-hours circadian rhythms. This study found that unc79 functions in the mushroom body, but not pacemaker neurons, to regulate sleep duration and starvation resistance. Together, these findings reveal spatially localized separable functions of unc79 in the regulation of circadian behavior, sleep, and metabolic function (Murakami, 2021).

Cation chloride cotransporters (CCCs) regulate intracellular chloride ion concentration ([Cl(-)](i)) within neurons, which can reverse the direction of the neuronal response to the neurotransmitter GABA. Na(+) K(+) Cl(-) (NKCC) and K(+) Cl(-) (KCC) cotransporters transport Cl(-) into or out of the cell, respectively. When NKCC activity dominates, the resulting high [Cl(-)](i) can lead to an excitatory and depolarizing response of the neuron upon GABA(A) receptor opening, while KCC dominance has the opposite effect. This inhibitory-to-excitatory GABA switch has been linked to seasonal adaption of circadian clock function to changing day length, and its dysregulation is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as epilepsy. In Drosophila melanogaster, constant light normally disrupts circadian clock function and leads to arrhythmic behavior. This study demonstrates a function for CCCs in regulating Drosophila locomotor activity and GABA responses in circadian clock neurons because alteration of CCC expression in circadian clock neurons elicits rhythmic behavior in constant light. The same effects were observed after downregulation of the Wnk and Fray kinases, which modulate CCC activity in a [Cl(-)](i)-dependent manner. Patch-clamp recordings from the large LNv clock neurons show that downregulation of KCC results in a more positive GABA reversal potential, while KCC overexpression has the opposite effect. Finally, KCC and NKCC downregulation reduces or increases morning behavioral activity during long photoperiods, respectively. In summary, these results support a model in which the regulation of [Cl(-)](i) by a KCC/NKCC/Wnk/Fray feedback loop determines the response of clock neurons to GABA, which is important for adjusting behavioral activity to constant light and long-day conditions (Eick, 2022).

There is considerable variation in sleep duration, timing and quality in human populations, and sleep dysregulation has been implicated as a risk factor for a range of health problems. Human sleep traits are known to be regulated by genetic factors, but also by an array of environmental and social factors. These uncontrolled, non-genetic effects complicate powerful identification of the loci contributing to sleep directly in humans. The model system, Drosophila melanogaster, exhibits a behavior that shows the hallmarks of mammalian sleep, and this study used a multitiered approach, encompassing high-resolution QTL mapping, expression QTL data, and functional validation with RNAi to investigate the genetic basis of sleep under highly controlled environmental conditions. A battery of sleep phenotypes was measured in >750 genotypes derived from a multiparental mapping panel and identified several, modest-effect QTL contributing to natural variation for sleep. Merging sleep QTL data with a large head transcriptome eQTL mapping dataset from the same population allowed refining the list of plausible candidate causative sleep loci. This set includes genes with previously characterized effects on sleep and circadian rhythms, in addition to novel candidates. Finally, adult, nervous system-specific RNAi was used on the Dopa decarboxylase, dyschronic, and timeless genes, finding significant effects on sleep phenotypes for all three. The genes resolved in this study are strong candidates to harbor causative, regulatory variation contributing to sleep (Smith, 2020).

Despite the significant advance in understanding of the molecular basis of light entrainment of the circadian clock in Drosophila, the underlying genetic architecture is still largely unknown. The aim of this study was to identify loci associated with variation in circadian photosensitivity, which are important for the evolution of this trait. Complementary approaches were used that combined quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, complementation testing, and transcriptome profiling to dissect this variation. A major QTL was identified on chromosome 2, which was subsequently fine mapped using deficiency complementation mapping into 2 smaller regions spanning 139 genes, some of which are known to be involved in functions that have been previously implicated in light entrainment. Two genes implicated with the clock and located within that interval, timeless and cycle, failed to complement the QTL, indicating that alleles of these genes contribute to the variation in light response. Specifically, the timeless s/ls polymorphism that has been previously shown to constitute a latitudinal cline in Europe is also segregating in the recombinant inbred lines and is contributing to the phenotypic variation in light sensitivity. This study also profiled gene expression in 2 recombinant inbred strains that differ significantly in their photosensitivity and a total of 368 transcripts were identified that showed differential expression (false discovery rate < 0.1). Of 131 transcripts that showed a significant recombinant inbred line by treatment interaction (i.e., putative expression QTL), 4 are located within QTL2 (Adewoye, 2017).

Amino-acid transporters are involved in functions reportedly linked to the sleep/wake cycle: neurotransmitter synthesis and recycling, the regulation of synaptic strength, protein synthesis and energy metabolism. In addition, the existence of bidirectional relationships between extracellular content, transport systems and sleep/wake states is receiving emerging support. Nevertheless, the connection between amino-acid transport and sleep/wake regulation remains elusive. To address this question, this study used Drosophila melanogaster and investigated the role of LAT1 (Large neutral Amino-acid Transporter 1) transporters. This study shows that the two Drosophila LAT1-like transporters: JhI-21 and minidiscs (Mnd) are required in dopaminergic neurons for sleep/wake regulation. Down-regulating either gene in dopaminergic neurons resulted in higher daily sleep and longer sleep bout duration during the night, suggesting a defect in dopaminergic transmission. Since LAT1 transporters can mediate in mammals the uptake of L-DOPA, a precursor of dopamine, amino-acid transport efficiency was assessed by L-DOPA feeding. Downregulation of JhI-21, but not Mnd, reduced the sensitivity to L-DOPA as measured by sleep loss. JhI-21 downregulation also attenuated the sleep loss induced by continuous activation of dopaminergic neurons. Since LAT1 transporters are known to regulate TOR (Target Of Rapamycin) signaling, the role of this amino-acid sensing pathway in dopaminergic neurons was investigated. Consistently, it is reported that TOR activity in dopaminergic neurons modulates sleep/wake states. Altogether, this study provides evidence that LAT1 mediated amino-acid transport in dopaminergic neurons, is playing a significant role in sleep/wake regulation, and is providing several entry points to elucidate the role of nutrients such as amino-acids in sleep/wake regulation (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

Emerging evidence suggests bidirectional relationships between extracellular space content and vigilance states, emphasizing the so far little explored sleep-regulatory role of the transmembrane transport of ions and small molecules. Sleep and wakefulness have a pervasive impact on brain cellular activities linked to neurotransmission, neuronal plasticity, neurotransmitter synthesis, nutrient supply, and waste elimination, relying on the efficient and precise coordination of transport systems. Investigating how transporters and underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms are involved in these mutual interactions requires the targeting of individual genes in specific cell types. This strategy is highly amenable to the Drosophila model. Among the large array of cellular transporters present in the genome and conserved between insects and mammals, the well-characterized large neutral amino acid transporters are particularly relevant given their role in neurotransmitter synthesis and recycling, in the regulation of synaptic strength, in protein synthesis and energy metabolism. In addition, the de novo synthesis of brain monoamines associated with wakefulness and neuromodulation, such as serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, is dependent on large neutral essential amino acids provided by the blood (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

The SLC7A5 (or large neutral amino-acid transporter, light chain or LAT1) and SLC7A8 (LAT2) amino acid transporters are present in most cell types and appear to play a prominent role in the Na+-independent transport of large branched and aromatic neutral amino acids. These transporters belong to the heterodimeric amino acid transporters (HAT) family and require co-expression of the CD98hc /4F2hc (SLC3A2) heavy chain, to which they can be covalently linked by a di-sulfur bridge. The heavy subunit does not appear to confer transport-specific properties, nor to be confined to HAT transporter function. In the mammalian brain, LAT1 is highly expressed in the cells of the blood-brain-barrier and is thought to play a critical role in providing the central nervous system with essential amino acids such as phenylalanine, tyrosine, leucine, and tryptophan, which are nutrients and precursors for monoamine synthesis. The uptake of leucine through LAT1 is a major activator signal for target of rapamycin complex 1 (TORC1), a cellular pathway dependent on the TOR kinase that controls protein synthesis, brain excitability, and plasticity. Reciprocally, inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin has been shown to significantly reduce the activity and the mRNA expression of LAT1. Despite a few pieces of evidence, it remains to be investigated whether LAT1, LAT2, or other SLC7A transporters are also localized in neurons, and whether their function is linked to sleep and wake. In Drosophila, the HAT family of transporters is represented by one heavy chain, CD98hc, and five light chains: juvenile hormone inducible-21 (JHI-21), minidiscs (MND), genderblind (GB), CG9413 protein, and CG1607 protein. The specific activity of these transporters cannot be easily predicted from their sequences and requires functional testing. JHI-21 and MND can transport leucine, are inhibited by BCH (2-aminobicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-carboxylic acid), and, at least for JHI-21, require CD98hc to become functional, thus classifying them as LAT1-LAT2 homologs. Both genes are expressed at high levels in the central nervous system and have been shown to play important neurophysiological functions. JHI-21 and GB regulate glutamatergic synaptic strength, primarily through the regulation of extracellular glutamate levels, and are, respectively, required in motor neurons and in glial cells. In a recent report, it has also been shown that MND is required to activate brain insulin-producing neurons in response to circulating leucine. Interestingly those same insulin-producing neurons are connected to wakefulness promoting circuits. This study used the molecular-genetic tools of Drosophila to investigate the potential impact of JhI-21 and Mnd downregulation in neuronal subsets on sleep/wake regulation (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

Evidence is provided that the LAT-1 like transporters JhI-21 and Mnd are required in adult fly dopaminergic neurons to achieve adequate sleep/wake regulation. The results demonstrate that a downregulation of these transporters in dopaminergic neurons results in a decrease in wakefulness, under baseline conditions but also in conditions that increase dopaminergic transmission. This implies that the activity of dopaminergic neurons and/or their ability to release neurotransmitter requires JhI-21 and Mnd. These two amino acid transporters are the closest drosophila LAT1 homologs based on sequence and functional data, suggesting that some amino acid availability plays a critical role in dopaminergic neuronal function. Supporting this hypothesis, this study finds that downregulating the TOR pathway in dopaminergic neurons results in a decrease in wakefulness (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

As in mammals, dopaminergic transmission plays a major role in Drosophila wakefulness and has been suggested to constitute a core ancestral regulator of arousal and sleep entry across invertebrates. Drosophila and mammals share homologs for genes playing a central role in dopamine synthesis, reuptake, and signaling. This includes two D1-like receptors and one D2-like dopamine receptor. Among those, the D1-like receptor Dop1R1 (dDA1) plays a prominent role in sleep/wake regulation. Dop1R1 mutant flies display high daily sleep, longer sleep bout duration, and normal waking activity, a phenotype that closely resembles the one obtained in this studu by downregulating JhI-21 or Mnd in dopaminergic neurons. The effect of Dop1R1 on sleep/wake depends on its expression in the dorsal fan-shaped body (dFB), a key sleep-wake regulatory structure, and on the release of dopamine by a very limited set of dopaminergic neurons projecting to the dFB and located in the PPL1 and PPM3 cluster. Thus, it is possible that Mnd and JhI-21 are required in those specific neurons to achieve normal sleep-wake regulation. Expressing Mnd and JhI-21 UAS-RNAi constructs in PPL1 and PPM3 neurons failed to produce an abnormal sleep/wake phenotype. This lack of effect may be attributable to the limited efficiency of the UAS-RNAi constructs. Alternatively, the inhibition of JhI-21 and Mnd may affect multiple dopamine dependent microcircuits throughout the brain and thus cannot be easily replicated by a more specific manipulation (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

What function could JHI-21 and MND fulfill in dopaminergic neurons? At the glutamatergic neuromuscular junction, JHI-21 appears to regulate the clustering of post-synaptic glutamate receptors. JHI-21 does not appear to trigger directly the release of glutamate in this context, but possibly mediates the entry of amino acids such as leucine to activate molecular pathways controlling glutamatergic physiology. Although abnormal sleep/wake regulation was not observed when JhI-21 was inhibited in glutamatergic neurons, the results indicate that JhI-21 could play a role in dopaminergic physiology similar to the one hypothesized for the neuromuscular junction. The synthesis of brain monoamines depends on the supply of essential amino acids that are provided by food intake, thus requiring efficient cellular transport systems. Although dopaminergic neuron function is impaired when JhI-21 expression is downregulated, no evidence was found of reduced brain dopamine levels under baseline conditions. Dopamine levels were increased in the mutant flies fed with the dopamine precursor L-DOPA, an amino acid that has been shown to be transported by LAT1, further suggesting that JhI-21 expression is not critical for dopamine synthesis. In this experiment, dopamine synthesis could also take place ectopically in dopa-decarboxylase (ddc) expressing serotoninergic neurons, in which the UAS-JhI-21-RNAi construct was not expressed. Dopamine content was still increased, although moderately, in flies in which the UAS-JhI-21-RNAi construct was targeted to both dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurons using the ddc-Gal4 driver. The lack of impact of JhI21 downregulation on L-DOPA-induced increase in dopamine synthesis could be due to functional redundancy between JhI-21 and Mnd, or could be a consequence of the partial inhibition provided by the UAS-RNAi constructs. In contrast to those findings on tissue content, this study clearly observed that JhI-21 downregulation in dopaminergic neurons reduced the sensitivity to L-DOPA as measured with sleep loss, and significantly attenuated the sleep loss phenotype of the TH-GaL4 > UAS-TrpA1 hyperdopaminergic condition. This raises the possibility that JhI-21 mediates the entry of amino acids critical for the physiology of dopaminergic neurons, such as leucine that could activate TOR-dependent processes influencing protein synthesis and energy metabolism, but is not directly involved in dopamine synthesis through the transport of precursors such as tyrosine or phenylalanine. The phenotype observed in flies where both Rheb and JhI-21 are manipulated indicates that JhI-21 could be required for TOR pathway activation. This hypothetical model is conceivable since in mammals enriched intracellular leucine levels via LAT1 transport activate mTORC1. Alternatively, TOR signaling could modulate JHI-21 function and affect LAT1-like-dependent transport mechanisms required for neuronal activity. Elucidating the relationships between TOR signaling and LAT1-like transporters, and understanding how they play a critical role in dopaminergic neurons function will require further work (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

This study showed that the MND and JHI-21 transporters are broadly expressed in the brain. However, targeting the JhI-21 and Mnd UAS-RNAi constructs to most nondopaminergic cell types, including the wake-promoting octopaminergic neurons, failed to affect sleep-wake regulation. This lack of effect may be attributable to the efficiency of genetic tools or alternatively to the more stringent requirement for these transporters in dopaminergic neurons. Further studies are warranted to further evaluate this question. Interestingly, accumulating pieces of evidence support the existence of a dynamic regulation for JhI-21 and Mnd: JhI-21 is modulated during larval development in close correlation with behavioral changes and in adult after long-term memory conditioning, whereas Mnd is differentially expressed after sleep deprivation. The expression of LAT1 transporters in mammalian dopaminergic neurons has not been investigated yet; however, a report using pharmacological methods suggested that such transporters could modulate neuronal activity. The fact that sleep deprivation induces changes in TOR signaling in the brain opens the possibility that LAT1 could be modulated by sleep/wake in mammals. Of note, sleep deprivation could induce changes in LAT1 expression at the blood-brain barrier (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

In conclusion, this study reveals the role of LAT1-like transporters in the function of dopaminergic neurons, adding one more element to the array of cellular and molecular events affecting sleep/wake regulation. Since these transporters are known to be dynamically regulated by physiological cellular states, they provide an entry point to elucidate the role of nutrient in sleep/wake regulation (Aboudhiaf, 2018).

The daily expression of genes and the changes in gene expression after silencing the heme oxygenase (ho) gene were examined in the retina of Drosophila using microarray and SybrGreen qPCR (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) methods. The HO decrease in the morning upregulated 83 genes and downregulated 57 genes. At night, 80 genes were upregulated and 22 were downregulated. The top 20 genes downregulated after ho silencing in the morning modulate phototransduction, immune responses, autophagy, phagocytosis, apoptosis, the carbon monoxide (CO) response, the oxidative stress/UV response, and translation. In turn, the genes that upregulated at night were involved in translation-the response to oxidative stress, DNA damage, and phototransduction. Among the top 20 genes downregulated at night were genes involved in phototransduction, immune responses, and autophagy. For some genes, a low level of HO had an opposite effect in the morning compared to those at night. Silencing ho also changed the expression of circadian clock genes, while the HO decrease during the night enhanced the expression of immune system genes. The results showed that the cyclic expression of HO is important for controlling several processes in the retina, including neuroprotection and those involved in the innate immune system (Damulewicz, 2018).

The aging eye experiences physiological changes that include decreased visual function and increased risk of retinal degeneration. Although there are transcriptomic signatures in the aging retina that correlate with these physiological changes, the gene regulatory mechanisms that contribute to cellular homeostasis during aging remain to be determined. This study integrated ATAC-seq and RNA-seq data to identify 57 transcription factors that showed differential activity in aging Drosophila photoreceptors. These 57 age-regulated transcription factors include two circadian regulators, Clock and Cycle, that showed sustained increased activity during aging. When the Clock:Cycle complex was disrupted by expressing a dominant negative version of Clock (ClkDN) in adult photoreceptors, changes were observed in expression of 15-20% of genes including key components of the phototransduction machinery and many eye-specific transcription factors. Using ATAC-seq, expression of ClkDN in photoreceptors was shown to lead to changes in activity of 37 transcription factors and causes a progressive decrease in global levels of chromatin accessibility in photoreceptors. Supporting a key role for Clock-dependent transcription in the eye, expression of ClkDN in photoreceptors also induced light-dependent retinal degeneration and increased oxidative stress, independent of light exposure. Together, these data suggests that the circadian regulators Clock and Cycle act as neuroprotective factors in the aging eye by directing gene regulatory networks that maintain expression of the phototransduction machinery and counteract oxidative stress (Jauregui-Lozano, 2022).

Drosophila circadian behavior relies on the network of heterogeneous groups of clock neurons. Short- and long-range signaling within the pacemaker circuit coordinates molecular and neural rhythms of clock neurons to generate coherent behavioral output. The neurochemistry of circadian behavior is complex and remains incompletely understood. This study demonstrates that the gaseous messenger nitric oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule linking circadian pacemaker to rhythmic locomotor activity. mutants lacking nitric oxide synthase (NOS) have behavioral arrhythmia in constant darkness, although molecular clocks in the main pacemaker neurons are unaffected. Behavioral phenotypes of mutants are due in part to the malformation of neurites of the main pacemaker neurons, s-LNvs. Using cell-type selective and stage-specific gain- and loss-of-function of NOS, this study also demonstrated that NO secreted from diverse cellular clusters affect behavioral rhythms. Furthermore, perineurial glia, one of the two glial subtypes that form the blood-brain barrier, as the major source of NO that regulates circadian locomotor output. These results reveal for the first time the critical role of NO signaling in the Drosophila circadian system and highlight the importance of neuro-glial interaction in the neural circuit output (Kozlov, 2020).

It is rather surprising that the lack of NOS enzyme is not lethal as NO is part of various developmental processes. NOSΔ mutants are nonetheless strongly arrhythmic in DD and have reduced morning anticipation in LD. The data suggest that both congenital impairments and lack of NO signaling in adulthood contribute to the behavioral phenotype of the mutants. Axonal terminals of the master pacemaker, s-LNvs, in NOS mutants are profoundly disordered, suggesting the wrong or absent synaptic connections with the downstream partners. However, molecular rhythms in the pacemaker neurons are unaffected. During adulthood, NOS activity in the perineurial glia is required for producing free-running locomotor rhythms but not for maintaining PDF rhythms and structure of the s-LNvs. This finding indicates that NO produced in the perineurial glia is necessary for proper the functioning of circadian locomotor output circuits. Taken together, these results demonstrate that NO signaling is essential for establishing and controlling circadian output circuit (Kozlov, 2020).

The functional isoform dNOS1 shows a circadian variation of its RNA levels throughout the day, which suggest that levels of NO could cycle at least in LD. However, dNOS is likely to be regulated by its truncated isoforms in a stage- and cell-type-specific manner, which lays an additional complexity to the regulation of NO production and probably leads to the heterogeneous and context-specific variations of NO. Hyperproduction of NO modulates molecular clockwork, albeit modestly, and is generally detrimental to locomotor rhythms. Therefore, the level and potentially the rhythms of NO production should be tightly controlled in wild-type flies (Kozlov, 2020).

In an NOS RNAi mini screen, two optic lobe-specific drivers, GMR79D04 and GMR85B12, reduced locomotor rhythmicity in DD. This phenotype was observed when NOS was downregulated constitutively in these cells but not when knockdown was restricted to adulthood. These results reinforce the idea that NO is necessary for a proper establishment of neuronal circuits. A low rhythmicity phenotype caused by NOS knockdown with the pan-neuronal driver GMR57C10-GAL4 is congruent with the above findings. Intriguingly, however, in addition to the low rhythmicity, GMR57C10 > NOS RNAi in adulthood resulted in an extended period. What might be the neuronal subsets that produce NO and regulate period length of locomotor activity? A recent study by Aso (2019), NO was shown to act as a co-transmitter in a subset of dopaminergic neurons, specifically in some of the PAMs, PPL1s and PPL2abs. It is thus possible that dopamine signaling modulated by NO is involved in the control of the locomotor activity period. It is also noteworthy that NO-mediated signaling has a profound neuromodulatory effect on spinal motor networks and regulates frequency and amplitude of motor activity in various vertebrate species. NO-mediated regulation of circadian locomotor output in flies might involve a similar mechanism (Kozlov, 2020).

DAR4-M staining showed an enrichment of NO in glial cells, including the surface glia. Targeting glial cells leads to the strongest and most persistent phenotype in locomotor activity both for gain- and loss-of-function of NOS. Among glial subpopulations, the perineurial glia appears to be the major site of NOS activity that regulates locomotor rhythms. The importance of glia in circadian rhythms have been recognized, especially those containing the molecular clocks and exert reciprocal communication with the pacemaker neural circuit. It has been shown that the perineurial glial cells harbor molecular clocks, which drive daily rhythms in the blood-brain barrier permeability but are not required for locomotor activity rhythms. This study is the first to identify NO as a signaling molecule produced in glia and mediates part of the role of glia, independently of their molecular clocks, in Drosophila circadian rhythms (Kozlov, 2020).

It has been shown that in mammals NO mediates light-induced phase-shifts through the cGMP pathway. It is an interesting parallel to note that forced production of NO in the s-LNvs caused phase shift rather than amplitude dampening. Since high levels of NO inhibit E75/UNF dimerization and E75/UNF normally enhances per transcription, it is speculated that NO-induced phase-shift may be partly mediated by the inhibition of E75/UNF (Hormone receptor 51) heterodimerization. It will be interesting to test this hypothesis in future studies. Mammalian clocks contain E75 homologs REV-ERB α/β, which repress Bmal1 transcription. Analogous to the notion in flies, NO is thought to decrease REV-ERB α/β activity. Consistently, in vitro studies in mammalian cell culture showed that excessive presence of NO increases the production of Bmal1 mRNA. These findings altogether point out that NO is an evolutionarily conserved regulator of circadian rhythms (Kozlov, 2020).

In line with recent studies, this research expands the view on the factors that participate in neuronal and molecular mechanisms of circadian rhythmicity. The finding that gaseous messenger NO contributes to the various aspects of circadian rhythmicity emphasizes that non-cell-autonomous, systemic regulation is integral to the circadian circuit operation. These results set a foundation for future studies addressing the mechanism by which NO signaling modulates the state of the pacemaker circuit and its output (Kozlov, 2020).

Mesencephalic Astrocyte-derived Neurotrophic Factor (MANF) is one of a few neurotrophic factors described in Drosophila melanogaster (DmMANF) but its function is still poorly characterized. The present study found that DmMANF is expressed in different clusters of clock neurons. In particular, the PDF-positive large (l-LNv) and small (s-LNv) ventral lateral neurons, the CRYPTOCHROME-positive dorsal lateral neurons (LNd), the group 1 dorsal neurons posterior (DN1p) and different tim-positive cells in the fly's visual system. Importantly, DmMANF expression in the ventral lateral neurons is not controlled by the clock nor it affects its molecular mechanism. However, silencing DmMANF expression in clock neurons affects the rhythm of locomotor activity in light:dark and constant darkness conditions. Such phenotypes correlate with abnormal morphology of the dorsal projections of the s-LNv and with reduced arborizations of the l-LNv in the medulla of the optic lobe. Additionally, it was shown that DmMANF is important for normal morphology of the L2 interneurons in the visual system and for the circadian rhythm in the topology of their dendritic tree. These results indicate that DmMANF is important not only for the development of neurites but also for maintaining circadian plasticity of neurons (Krzeptowski, 2021).

A precise balance between sleep and wakefulness is essential to sustain a good quality of life and optimal brain function. GABA is known to play a key and conserved role in sleep control, and GABAergic tone should, therefore, be tightly controlled in sleep circuits. This study examined the role of the astrocytic GABA transporter (Gat) in sleep regulation using Drosophila melanogaster. A hypomorphic Gat mutation (Gat^33-1) increased sleep amount, decreased sleep latency, and increased sleep consolidation at night. Interestingly, sleep defects were suppressed when Gat^33-1 was combined with a mutation disrupting wide-awake (wake), a gene that regulates the cell-surface levels of the GABA(A) receptor Resistance to dieldrin (Rdl) in the wake-promoting large ventral lateral neurons (l-LNvs). Moreover, RNAi knockdown of Rdl and its modulators dnlg4 and wake in these circadian neurons also suppressed Gat^33-1 sleep phenotypes. Brain immunohistochemistry showed that GAT-expressing astrocytes were located near RDL-positive l-LNv cell bodies and dendritic processes. It is concluded that astrocytic GAT decreases GABAergic tone and RDL activation in arousal-promoting LNvs, thus determining proper sleep amount and quality in Drosophila (Chaturvedi, 2022).

The circadian circuit, a roughly 24 h molecular feedback loop, or clock, is conserved from bacteria to animals and allows for enhanced organismal survival by facilitating the anticipation of the day/night cycle. Recent research has demonstrated that proteins comprising the circadian clock network display a significant amount of intrinsic disorder. This work focussed on the extent of intrinsic disorder in the circadian clock and its potential mechanistic role in circadian timing. The conservation of disorder was highlighted by quantifying the extent of computationally-predicted protein disorder in the core clock of the key eukaryotic circadian model organisms Drosophila melanogaster, Neurospora crassa, and Mus musculus. Previously published work, as well as feature novel experimental evidence, was examined, demonstrating that the core negative arm circadian period drivers FREQUENCY (Neurospora crassa) and PERIOD-2 (PER2) (Mus musculus), possess biochemical characteristics of intrinsically disordered proteins. Finally, the potential contributions are discussed of the inherent biophysical principals of intrinsically disordered proteins that may explain the vital mechanistic roles they play in the clock to drive their broad evolutionary conservation in circadian timekeeping. It is concluded that the pervasive conservation of disorder amongst the clock in the crown eukaryotes suggests that disorder is essential for optimal circadian timing from fungi to animals, providing vital homeostatic cellular maintenance and coordinating organismal physiology across phylogenetic kingdoms (Pelham, 2020).

Starvation caused by adverse feeding stresses or food shortages has been reported to result in sleep loss in animals. However, how the starvation signal interacts with the central nervous system is still unknown. In this study, the adipokinetic hormone (AKH)-Fork head Box-O (FOXO) pathway is shown to respond to energy change and adjust the sleep of Drosophila through remodeling of the s-LNv (small ventral lateral neurons) dorsal projections. The results show that starvation prevents flies from going to sleep after the first light-dark transition. The LNvs are required for starvation-induced sleep loss through extension of the pigment dispersing factor (PDF)-containing s-LNv dorsal projections. Further studies reveal that loss of AKH or AKHR (akh receptor) function blocks starvation-induced extension of s-LNv dorsal projections and rescues sleep suppression during food deprivation. FOXO, which has been reported to regulate synapse plasticity of neurons, acts as starvation response factor downstream of AKH, and down regulation of FOXO level considerably alleviates the influence of starvation on s-LNv dorsal projections and sleep. Taking together, these results outline the transduction pathways between starvation signal and sleep, and reveal a novel functional site for sleep regulation (He, 2020).

While wake duration is a major sleep driver, an important question is if wake quality also contributes to controlling sleep. In particular, this study sought to determine whether changes in sensory stimulation affect sleep in Drosophila. As Drosophila rely heavily on their sense of smell, this study focused on manipulating olfactory input and the olfactory sensory pathway. Sensory deprivation was first performed by removing antennae or applying glue to antennae. Sleep was then measured in response to neural activation, via TRPA1, or inhibition, via KIR2.1, of subpopulations of neurons in the olfactory pathway. Genetically restricting manipulations to adult animals prevented developmental effects. This study found that olfactory deprivation reduces sleep, largely independently of mushroom bodies that integrate olfactory signals for memory consolidation and have previously been implicated in sleep. However, specific neurons in the lateral horn, the other third order target of olfactory input, affect sleep. Also, activation of inhibitory second order projection neurons increases sleep. No single neuronal population in the olfactory processing pathway was found to bidirectionally regulate sleep, and reduced sleep in response to olfactory deprivation may be masked by temperature changes. These findings demonstrate that Drosophila sleep is sensitive to sensory stimulation, and identify novel sleep-regulating neurons in the olfactory circuit. Scaling of signals across the circuit may explain the lack of bidirectional effects when neuronal activity is manipulated. It is proposed that olfactory inputs act through specific circuit components to modulate sleep in flies (Hsu, 2020).

The circadian system produces ~24-hr oscillations in behavioral and physiological processes to ensure that they occur at optimal times of day and in the correct temporal order. At its core, the circadian system is composed of dedicated central clock neurons that keep time through a cell-autonomous molecular clock. To produce rhythmic behaviors, time-of-day information generated by clock neurons must be transmitted across output pathways to regulate the downstream neuronal populations that control the relevant behaviors. An understanding of the manner through which the circadian system enacts behavioral rhythms therefore requires the identification of the cells and molecules that make up the output pathways. To that end, the Drosophila pars intercerebralis (PI) was recently characterized as a major circadian output center that lies downstream of central clock neurons in a circuit controlling rest:activity rhythms. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) was performed to identify potential circadian output genes expressed by PI cells, and cell-specific RNA interference (RNAi) was used to knock down expression of ~40 of these candidate genes selectively within subsets of PI cells. Knockdown of the slowpoke (slo) potassium channel in PI cells reliably decreases circadian rest:activity rhythm strength. Interestingly, slo mutants have previously been shown to have aberrant rest:activity rhythms, in part due to a necessary function of slo within central clock cells. However, rescue of slo in all clock cells does not fully reestablish behavioral rhythms, indicating that expression in non-clock neurons is also necessary. These results demonstrate that slo exerts its effects in multiple components of the circadian circuit, including PI output cells in addition to clock neurons, and it is hypothesized that it does so by contributing to the generation of daily neuronal activity rhythms that allow for the propagation of circadian information throughout output circuits (Ruiz, 2021).

Endogenous clocks enable organisms to adapt cellular processes, physiology, and behavior to daily variation in environmental conditions. Metabolic processes in cyanobacteria to humans are under the influence of the circadian clock, and dysregulation of the circadian clock causes metabolic disorders. In mouse and Drosophila, the circadian clock influences translation of factors involved in ribosome biogenesis and synchronizes protein synthesis. Notably, nutrition signals are mediated by the insulin receptor/target of rapamycin (InR/TOR) pathways to regulate cellular metabolism and growth. However, the role of the circadian clock in Drosophila brain development and the potential impact of clock impairment on neural circuit formation and function is less understood. This study demonstrates that changes in light stimuli or disruption of the molecular circadian clock cause a defect in neural stem cell growth and proliferation. Moreover, this study shows that disturbed cell growth and proliferation are accompanied by reduced nucleolar size indicative of impaired ribosomal biogenesis. Further, this study defines that light and clock independently affect the InR/TOR growth regulatory pathway due to the effect on regulators of protein biosynthesis. Altogether, these data suggest that alterations in InR/TOR signaling induced by changes in light conditions or disruption of the molecular clock have an impact on growth and proliferation properties of neural stem cells in the developing Drosophila brain (Dapergola, 2021).

The Drosophila circadian network dictates the temporal organization of locomotor activity; under light-dark (LD) conditions, flies display a robust bimodal pattern. PDF-positive small ventral lateral neurons (sLNv) have been linked to the generation of the morning activity peak (the "M cells"), whereas the CRY-positive dorsal lateral neurons (LNds) and the PDF-negative sLNv are necessary for the evening activity peak (the "E cells"). While each group directly controls locomotor output pathways, an interplay between them along with a third dorsal cluster (the DN1ps) is necessary for the correct timing of each peak and for adjusting behavior to changes in the environment. M cells set the phase of roughly half of the circadian neurons (including the E cells) through PDF. This study shows the existence of synaptic input provided by the evening oscillator onto the M cells. Both structural and functional approaches revealed that E-to-M cell connectivity changes across the day, with higher excitatory input taking place before the day-to-night transition. Two different neurotransmitters, acetylcholine and glutamate, released by E cells were identified that are relevant for robust circadian output. Indeed, this study shows that acetylcholine is responsible for the excitatory input from E cells to M cells, which show preferential responsiveness to acetylcholine during the evening. These findings provide evidence of an excitatory feedback between circadian clusters and unveil an important plastic remodeling of the E cells' synaptic connections (Duhart, 2020a).

In addition to timed neuronal activation and neuropeptide release, circadian remodeling of neuronal connectivity provides a mechanism to timely restrict circadian neuronal input/output. To explore mechanisms modulating E cell communication, this study sought for changes in presynaptic sites of the E cells by means of expressing an RFP-tagged version of Bruchpilot (BRP), a component of presynaptic active zones. Although the complexity of the E cell arborization pattern precluded a description based on membrane labeling, quantification of BRP particle numbers have proven to uncover circadian synaptic remodeling. The MB122B-splitGal4 and the Mai179Gal4;pdfGal80 drivers were employed to direct expression to E cells. As previously described, E cells showed an extensive arborization of putative presynaptic zones, marked by dense BRPRFP staining, in close proximity to M cell somas, axons, and dorsal terminals; particularly, in the dorsal region, a significantly lower number of active zones were detected at the beginning of the day (ZT2) and higher numbers toward the end of the light phase (at ZT10, 'late-day'). This time-of-day difference was confirmed through a second E cell driver (Mai179Gal4;pdfGal80). Interestingly, the timing of E cell maximum synaptic density coincides with the highest level of neuronal activity, similar to what has previously been described for M cells, suggesting this might be a general mechanism coupling circadian control of structural synaptic output to cellular excitability. E cell presynaptic changes were not detected near the cell bodies or the main axonal tract of the M cells but were paralleled by changes in M cell postsynaptic markers at the dorsal protocerebrum (Gorostiza, 2014), suggesting that these two groups are reciprocally remodeling their terminals in this region (Duhart, 2020a).

To test the possibility that E cells could provide input to M cells, its targets were trans-synaptically tagging with trans-Tango. Out of the two available drivers, the MB122B-splitGal4 was selected because it shows minimal expression beyond this circadian subset, thus providing a more precise tool to map E cell postsynaptic contacts. This approach uncovered a restricted number of yet unidentified neurons (likely including the short neuropeptide F (sNPF)-positive dorsal lateral neurons [LNds], which are postsynaptic to the ion transport peptide (ITP)-positive LNd and 5th small ventral lateral neurons [sLNv]) whose somas and profuse arborizations are located within the dorsolateral region; more importantly, trans-synaptic labeling revealed that pigment-dispersing factor (PDF)+ M cells are postsynaptic to E cells (Duhart, 2020a).

Trans-Tango experiments do not allow any temporal resolution. To gain more insight on the sites and plastic changes of E-to-M connectivity, GFP reconstitution across synaptic partners (GRASP) was employed to direct the expression of a presynaptically tagged GFP fragment to the E cells and describe their degree of contact across the day. Using both the strong Mai179Gal4;pdfGal80 and the specific MB122B-splitGal4 E cell drivers, evidence was found of E-to-M synaptic contacts in the M cell dorsal terminals and axonal tracts. Indeed, GRASP intensity at the dorsal region (but not in the axonal tracts) was higher at dusk compared to dawn, a further indication of strengthened E-to-M connectivity at the dorsal protocerebrum during late day. Of note, GRASP signal was also high toward the end of the night, as it had originally been reported employing a non-targeted split GFP, suggesting that the connection between E and M cells might also be relevant for the night-day transition (Duhart, 2020a).

E cells have the ability to affect the morning activity component, but a functional assessment for E-to-M cell communication has not been reported yet. To test this possibility, E cells were depolarized by means of an ATP perfusion that activates the ectopically expressed P2X2 channel. An excitatory response was uncovered in M cells, revealed by an increase in intracellular calcium levels , indicating a functional excitatory feedback from E to M cells (Duhart, 2020a).

The observation of structural changes in the E cell terminals suggests that the functional E-to-M communication might be subject to daily regulation. Accordingly, it was found that forced depolarization of the E cells led to M cell responses predominantly during the second half of the light period; specifically, at ZT8-10, responses are statistically different from those obtained in the remaining intervals, with the exception of those triggered at ZT6-8. This coincides with the window of maximum E cell presynaptic contacts at the dorsal terminals. Single trace analysis enabled comparison between the individual responses triggered at different times, which highlighted not only the variability among the responses observed at any given time point but also the differential kinetics of M cell responses, which appear to differ at ZT22-0 (faster) compared to ZT8-10 (slower, albeit no statistical analysis of this property was performed (Duhart, 2020a).

Taken together, these findings confirm the E-to-M cell excitatory communication and show daily changes in the functional synaptic connectivity between key components of the Drosophila circadian network (Duhart, 2020a).

Within the circadian network it has been shown that fast neurotransmission from M cells promotes network synchronization; likewise, DN1ps contribute to shape the activity profile under light-dark (LD) cycles through fast neurotransmission. It was hypothesized that fast neurotransmission from E cells would be part of the mechanisms underlying proper circadian outputs and the identity of the putative neurotransmitter(s) were sought by means of expressing specific RNAis to downregulate genes involved in their synthesis, release, or reuptake. Acetylcholine (ACh) and glutamate (Glut) were identified as strong candidates to play a role in circadian timekeeping. To avoid any compensatory or deleterious effect throughout development, RNAi expression was restricted to adulthood by means of the Target system. E cell downregulation of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (vAChT) or the choline acetyltransferase (ChAT; that catalyzes the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine) affected the consolidation of the endogenous locomotor activity rhythms, without inducing changes in the clock's speed, confirming the importance of ACh released by the E cells for network synchronization. Interestingly, the evening anticipatory activity was reduced by vAChT and ChAT downregulation in E cells, a behavioral signature of E cell activity under LD cycles (Duhart, 2020a).

Fast neurotransmitter co-release has been described both in vertebrates and invertebrates, and peptidergic/fast neurotransmitter co-transmission is present within the Drosophila circadian network, which led to examining the role of Glut as a second E cell neurotransmitter. Adult-restricted expression of the vesicular glutamate transporter (vGluT) RNAi impaired behavioral rhythmic output, triggering a reduced consolidation of the activity patterns as well as a small change in the circadian period of endogenous rhythms without significantly affecting the LD locomotor patterns. These results confirmed the role of glutamatergic neurotransmission released by E cells, at least under free running conditions. Reduction in rhythm robustness was previously reported by silencing E cells with the inward-rectifying potassium channel Kir2.1, which coincides with the behavioral phenotype uncovered upon cholinergic and glutamatergic downregulation in E cells (Duhart, 2020a).

In addition to classical neurotransmitters, the PDF neuropeptide is crucial for proper coupling among circadian clusters and for modulating the activity of locomotor centers. Interestingly, constant PDF levels are found in flies with defective consolidation of activity rhythms. Thus, it was reasoned that the phenotype associated to prevent neurotransmitter release from E cells could possibly involve alterations in PDF cycling as an output of the network. Along those lines, it was found that impairing cholinergic neurotransmission in E cells abolished PDF oscillations at the sLNv dorsal terminals, with similar levels to those found at night in controls. Likewise, impairing glutamatergic neurotransmission particularly affected PDF levels in the morning, albeit some residual cycling was still observed, suggesting that a balanced neurotransmission from E cells is necessary for proper neuropeptidergic output of the M cells. The idea is favored that reduced amplitude of PDF cycling is the result of an altered balance of sLNv activity, which depends not only on clock-dependent control of ion channel expression but also on direct/indirect input from the circadian network [tested at least for the large LNvs (lLNvs)] (Duhart, 2020a).

Since E cell activation led to M cell depolarization, and ACh from E cells impacted on circadian timekeeping, it was hypothesized that the M cells would be one of the cholinergic targets of the E cells. Bath application of the nicotine antagonist curare prevented M cell excitatory responses triggered by acute depolarization of E cells between ZT6-10. As previously reported, its effects were difficult to wash; however, about 30% of the M cells partially recovered after washing the antagonist (i.e., the fluorescence after washout was at least two times higher than with curare). Taking into account that the M cell response to E cell activation showed an unequivocal time-of-day dependency, and that PDF-positive cells have previously been shown to respond to bath application of Ach, whether M cells exhibit a differential response to ACh was tested at times where E-to-M connectivity differed significantly. Bath application of ACh to brains expressing GCaMP6m in PDF cells led to strong calcium responses in both the lLNv (also PDF-positive cells but not formally part of the M oscillator) and M cells during the evening. However, although ACh application induced equivalent responses in the lLNv during the morning, M cells' activation was highly reduced at this time point, underscoring that the sensitivity of these cells to cholinergic inputs is time-of-day dependent. Cholinergic inputs lead to both Ca2+ and cAMP increases in M cells through the nicotinic ACh receptor (nAChR). Therefore, changes in the levels of the nAChR itself or in the intracellular pathways activated by ACh throughout the day might also contribute to the control of E to M cell cholinergic circuit (Duhart, 2020a).

In addition to the well-studied role of neuropeptides, classical neurotransmitters contribute to the coordination of the multi-oscillator circadian network. Both E cells and DN1ps respond to an inhibitory glycine tone likely released by M cells. Additionally, an inhibitory feedback from the glutamatergic DN1ps to the M and E cells further refines the temporal organization of the activity pattern. The notion of reciprocal regulation between oscillator pairs prompted an investigate of whether E cells feedback onto the M oscillator. The results point toward an excitatory cholinergic feedback from E to M cells during the late day (i.e., around ZT8-10). In M cells, intracellular calcium levels show a strong time-of-day dependence, with a peak shortly before lights-on, declining over the light phase, and rising after lights-off. Thus, increased excitability of E cells and the higher synaptic excitatory input to M cells could provide activating signals which, integrated with other inputs and self-autonomous mechanisms, would ultimately lead to the change in intracellular calcium. Loss of excitatory feedback would then prevent the increase of PDF levels at the dorsal terminals of M cells (through recruitment of PDF-filled dense-core vesicles) and thus affect other timed signaling outputs, leading to network desynchronization and hence, deconsolidated behavioral rhythms. Within the circadian network, E, M, and DN1p clusters express mGluRA RNA, and glutamatergic input from DN1ps impacts both M and E cells. Thus, glutamate released from E cells could impact in any of these clusters, in a time-of-day controlled manner, providing an inhibitory output from E cells into the network. Specifically, the highest connectivity detected through GRASP opens the possibility that glutamatergic input from E to M cells reaches its maximum toward the end of the night, consistent with the inhibitory responses observed during that window, which could directly or indirectly imbalance the active recruitment of PDF dense-core vesicles to the terminals, hence PDF release in the morning. Alternatively, loss of glutamatergic inhibitory input onto glutamatergic DN1ps might result in a persisting increase of the activity of this cluster, which in turn could increase their inhibition onto M cells and also lead to impaired PDF release, a change in the pace of the molecular clock, and hence, deconsolidation of rest-activity patterns (Duhart, 2020a).

This work uncovers that the E cells communicate through fast neurotransmitters with a tight time-dependent control and a versatile output nature. Daily axonal remodeling of neuronal terminals-along with clock-controlled changes in the postsynaptic response to neurotransmitters-leads to plastic functional connectivity and provides novel building blocks to the flexible circadian network. This, in turn, enables fine-tuning reciprocal connections between oscillator pairs, further expanding its ability to adapt to environmental cycles. Thus, rhythmic behavior represents an emerging property of the plastic communication among clock neurons (Duhart, 2020a).

Sleep is a highly conserved state, suggesting that sleep's benefits outweigh the increased vulnerability it brings. Yet, little is known about how sleep fulfills its functions. This study used video tracking in tethered flies to identify a discrete deep sleep stage in Drosophila, termed proboscis extension sleep, that is defined by repeated stereotyped proboscis extensions and retractions. Proboscis extension sleep is accompanied by highly elevated arousal thresholds and decreased brain activity, indicative of a deep sleep state. Preventing proboscis extensions increases injury-related mortality and reduces waste clearance. Sleep deprivation reduces waste clearance and during subsequent rebound sleep, sleep, proboscis extensions, and waste clearance are increased. Together, these results provide evidence of a discrete deep sleep stage that is linked to a specific function and suggest that waste clearance is a core and ancient function of deep sleep (van Alphen, 2021).

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has been used as a model organism for the molecular and genetic dissection of sleeping behaviors. However, most previous studies were based on qualitative or semi-quantitative characterizations. This study quantified sleep in flies. An assay was set up to continuously track the activity of flies using infrared camera, which monitored the movement of tens of flies simultaneously with high spatial and temporal resolution. Accurate statistics were obtained regarding the rest and sleep patterns of single flies. Analysis of the data has revealed a general pattern of rest and sleep: the rest statistics obeyed a power law distribution and the sleep statistics obeyed an exponential distribution. Thus, a resting fly would start to move again with a probability that decreased with the time it has rested, whereas a sleeping fly would wake up with a probability independent of how long it had slept. Resting transits to sleeping at time scales of minutes. This method allows quantitative investigations of resting and sleeping behaviors and these results provide insights for mechanisms of falling into and waking up from sleep (Xu, 2021).

Time-restricted feeding (TRF) has recently gained interest as a potential anti-ageing treatment for organisms from Drosophila to humans. TRF restricts food intake to specific hours of the day. Because TRF controls the timing of feeding, rather than nutrient or caloric content, TRF has been hypothesized to depend on circadian-regulated functions; the underlying molecular mechanisms of its effects remain unclear. To exploit the genetic tools and well-characterized ageing markers of Drosophila, this study developed an intermittent TRF (iTRF) dietary regimen that robustly extended fly lifespan and delayed the onset of ageing markers in the muscles and gut. iTRF enhanced circadian-regulated transcription, and iTRF-mediated lifespan extension required both circadian regulation and autophagy, a conserved longevity pathway. Night-specific induction of autophagy was both necessary and sufficient to extend lifespan on an ad libitum diet and also prevented further iTRF-mediated lifespan extension. By contrast, day-specific induction of autophagy did not extend lifespan. Thus, these results identify circadian-regulated autophagy as a critical contributor to iTRF-mediated health benefits in Drosophila. Because both circadian regulation and autophagy are highly conserved processes in human ageing, this work highlights the possibility that behavioural or pharmaceutical interventions that stimulate circadian-regulated autophagy might provide people with similar health benefits, such as delayed ageing and lifespan extension (Ulgherait, 2021).

Balance between sleep, wakefulness and arousal is important for survival of organisms and species as a whole. While, the benefits of sleep both in terms of quantity and quality is widely recognized across species, sleep has a cost for organismal survival and reproduction. here the study focuses on how sleep duration, sleep depth and sleep pressure affect the ability of animals to engage in courtship and egg-laying behaviors critical for reproductive success. Using isogenic lines from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel with variable sleep phenotypes this study investigated the relationship between sleep and reproductive behaviors, courtship and oviposition. This study found that three out of five lines with decreased sleep and increased arousal phenotypes, showed increased courtship and decreased latency to court as compared to normal and long sleeping lines. However, the male courtship phenotype is dependent on context and genotype as some but not all long sleeping-low courting lines elevate their courtship in the presence of short sleeping-high courting flies. Sleep phenotypes were less variable and minimally susceptible to social experience. In addition to male courtship, Oviposition was found to be less sensitive to sleep length. Taken together this extensive behavioral analysis shows complex bidirectional interactions between genotype and environment and add to the growing evidence linking sleep duration and sleep-wake switch parameters to behavioral decision making critical to reproductive output (Buchert, 2021).

Circadian disturbances are early features of neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington's disease (HD). Emerging evidence suggests that circadian decline feeds into neurodegenerative symptoms, exacerbating them. Therefore, it was asked whether known neurotoxic modifiers can suppress circadian dysfunction. A screen was performed of neurotoxicity-modifier genes to suppress circadian behavioural arrhythmicity in a Drosophila circadian HD model. The molecular chaperones Hsp40 and HSP70 emerged as significant suppressors in the circadian context, with Hsp40 being the more potent mitigator. Upon Hsp40 overexpression in the Drosophila circadian ventrolateral neurons (LNv), the behavioural rescue was associated with neuronal rescue of loss of circadian proteins from small LNv soma. Specifically, there was a restoration of the molecular clock protein Period and its oscillations in young flies and a long-lasting rescue of the output neuropeptide Pigment dispersing factor. Significantly, there was a reduction in the expanded Huntingtin inclusion load, concomitant with the appearance of a spot-like Huntingtin form. Thus, this study provided evidence implicating the neuroprotective chaperone Hsp40 in circadian rehabilitation. The involvement of molecular chaperones in circadian maintenance has broader therapeutic implications for neurodegenerative diseases (Prakash, 2022).

Sleep is a very important behavior observed in almost all animals. Importantly, sleep is subject to both circadian and homeostatic regulation. The circadian rhythm determines the daily alternation of the sleep-wake cycle, while homeostasis mediates the rise and dissipation of sleep pressure during the wake and sleep period. As an important kinase, Dbt plays a central role in both circadian rhythms and development. This study investigated the sleep patterns of several ethyl methanesulfonate-induced dbt mutants and discusses the possible reasons why different sleep phenotypes were shown in these mutants. In order to reduce DBT in all neurons in which it is expressed, CRISPR-Cas9 was used to produce flies that expressed GAL4 in frame with the dbt gene at its endogenous locus, and knock-down of DBT with this construct produced elevated sleep during the day and reduced sleep at night. Loss of sleep at night is mediated by dbt loss during the sleep/wake cycle in the adult, while the increased sleep during the day is produced by reductions in dbt during development and not by reductions in the adult. Additionally, using targeted RNA interference, this study uncovered the contribution of dbt on sleep in different subsets of neurons in which dbt is normally expressed. Reduction of dbt in circadian neurons produced less sleep at night, while lower expression of dbt in noncircadian neurons produced increased sleep during the day. Importantly, independently of the types of neurons where dbt affects sleep, this study demonstrated that the PER protein is involved in DBT mediated sleep regulation (Wang, 2022).

The ability of organisms to sense their nutritional environment and adjust their behavior accordingly is critical for survival. Insulin-like peptides (ilps) play major roles in controlling behavior and metabolism; however, the tissues and cells that insulin acts on to regulate these processes are not fully understood. In the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, insulin signaling has been shown to function in the fat body to regulate lipid storage, but whether ilps act on the fly brain to regulate nutrient storage is not known. This study manipulated insulin signaling in defined populations of neurons in Drosophila and measure glycogen and triglyceride storage. Expressing a constitutively active form of the insulin receptor (dInR) in the insulin-producing cells had no effect on glycogen or triglyceride levels. However, activating insulin signaling in the Drosulfakinin (Dsk)-producing neurons led to triglyceride accumulation and increased food consumption. The expression of ilp2, ilp3 and ilp5 was increased in flies with activated insulin signaling in the Dsk neurons, which along with the feeding phenotype, may cause the triglyceride storage phenotypes observed in these flies. In addition, expressing a constitutively active dInR in Dsk neurons resulted in decreased sleep in the fed state and less starvation-induced sleep suppression suggesting a role for insulin signaling in regulating nutrient-responsive behaviors. Together, these data support a role for insulin signaling in the Dsk-producing neurons for regulating behavior and maintaining metabolic homeostasis (Palermo, 2022).

Sleeprelates to numerous biological functions, including metabolism. Both dietary conditions and genes related to metabolism are known to affect sleep behavior. Insulin signaling is well conserved across species including the fruit fly and relates to both metabolism and sleep. However, the neural mechanism of sleep regulation by insulin signaling is poorly understood. Here, we report that insulin signaling in specific neurons regulates sleep in Drosophila melanogaster. This study analyzed the sleep behavior of flies with the mutation in insulin-like ligands expressed in the brain and found that three insulin-like ligands participate in sleep regulation with some redundancy. Twenty-one Gal4 drivers were used to express a dominant-negative form of the insulin receptor (InR DN) in various neurons including circadian clock neurons, which express the clock gene, and the pars intercerebralis (PI). Inhibition of insulin signaling in the anterior dorsal neuron group 1 (DN1a) decreased sleep. Additionally, the same manipulation in PI also decreased sleep. Pan-neuronal induced expression of InR DN also decrease4ple, it was demonstrated that H3K27ac and H3K9ac represent universal active marks in promoters, rather than worm-specific marks as previously reported. Second, acting regions of the studied active marks that are common across species (and across a wide range of tissues at different developmental stages) were found to extend beyond the previously defined regions. Thus, it appears that the active histone codes analyzed have a universality that has previously been underappreciated. These results suggested that these universal codes, including those previously considered species-specific, could have an ancient origin, and are important in regulating animal gene expression abundance (Yamaguchi, 2022).

Liver Kinase B1 (LKB1) is known as a master kinase for 14 kinases related to the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase. Two of them salt inducible kinase 3 and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase α have previously been implicated in sleep regulation. This study generated loss-of-function mutants for Lkb1 in both Drosophila and mice. Sleep, but not circadian rhythms, was reduced in Lkb1-mutant flies and in flies with neuronal deletion of Lkb1. Genetic interactions between Lkb1 and threonine to alanine mutation at residue 184 of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase in Drosophila sleep or those between Lkb1 and Threonine to Glutamic Acid mutation at residue 196 of salt inducible kinase 3 in Drosophila viability have been observed. Sleep was reduced in mice after virally mediated reduction of Lkb1 in the brain. Electroencephalography analysis showed that nonrapid eye movement sleep and sleep need were both reduced in Lkb1-mutant mice. These results indicate that liver kinase B1 plays a physiological role in sleep regulation conserved from flies to mice (Liu, 2022).

Sleep is a universal and extremely complicated function. Sleep is regulated by two systems-sleep homeostasis and circadian rhythms. In a wide range of species, neuropeptides have been found to play a crucial role in the communication and synchronization between different components of both systems. In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, SIFamide (SIFa) is a neuropeptide that has been reported to be expressed in 4 neurons in the pars intercerebralis (PI) area of the brain. Previous work has shown that transgenic ablation of SIFa neurons, mutation of SIFa itself, or knockdown of SIFa receptors reduces sleep, suggesting that SIFa is sleep-promoting. However, those were all constitutive manipulations that could have affected development or resulted in compensation, so the role of SIFa signaling in sleep regulation during adulthood remains unclear. This study, examined the sleep-promoting effect of SIFa through an optogenetic approach, which allowed for neuronal activation with high temporal resolution, while leaving development unaffected. Activation of the red-light sensor Chrimson in SIFa neurons was found to promote sleep in flies in a sexually dimorphic manner, where the magnitude of the sleep effect was greater in females than in males. Because neuropeptidergic neurons often also release other transmitters, RNA interference was used to knock down SIFa while also optogenetically activating SIFa neurons. SIFa knockdown only partially reduced the magnitude of the sleep effect, suggesting that release of other transmitters may contribute to the sleep induction when SIFa neurons are activated. Video-based analysis showed that activation of SIFa neurons for as brief a period as 1 second was able to decrease walking behavior for minutes after the stimulus. Future studies should aim to identify the transmitters that are utilized by SIFa neurons and characterize their upstream activators and downstream targets. It would also be of interest to determine how acute optogenetic activation of SIFa neurons alters other behaviors that have been linked to SIFa, such as mating and feeding (Huang, 2021).

Coupling of autonomous cellular oscillators is an essential aspect of circadian clock function but little is known about its circuit requirements. Functional ablation of the pigment-dispersing factor-expressing lateral ventral subset (LN_V) of Drosophila clock neurons abolishes circadian rhythms of locomotor activity. The hypothesis that LN_Vs synchronize oscillations in downstream clock neurons was tested by rendering the LN_Vs hyperexcitable via transgenic expression of a low activation threshold voltage-gated sodium channel. When the LN_Vs are made hyperexcitable, free-running behavioral rhythms decompose into multiple independent superimposed oscillations and the clock protein oscillations in the dorsal neuron 1 and 2 subgroups of clock neurons are phase-shifted. Thus, regulated electrical activity of the LN_Vs synchronize multiple oscillators in the fly circadian pacemaker circuit (Nitabach, 2006).

Understanding the mechanisms for synchronizing multiple independent neural oscillators in circadian circuits is a key issue in circadian biology. This study provides evidence that the excitability state of the LN_V subset of clock neurons plays a critical role in coordinating multiple oscillators in the fly brain. When the LN_Vs are made electrically hyperexcitable by genetically targeted expression of a voltage-gated sodium channel cloned from a halophilic bacterium, NaChBac, transgenic flies exhibit complex free-running behavioral rhythms with multiple periods along with desynchronization of clock protein cycling throughout the pacemaker circuit and disrupted cycling of PDF levels in the dorsomedial terminal projections of the small LN_Vs (sLN_Vs) (Nitabach, 2006).

Anti-PDF immunofluorescence was observed in the dorsomedial terminals of the sLN_Vs in control flies. However, anti-PDF immunofluorescence in the dorsomedial terminals of the sLN_Vs of experimental flies expressing NaChBac in the LN_Vs is maintained at constitutively higher levels. This result is unexpected if PDF release at nerve terminals is the only cellular function influenced by alterations in cellular electrical excitability. Although there remains a formal possibility that NaChBac expression does not cause increased electrical excitability in pacemaker neurons, this is considered highly unlikely because of the robust and opposite effects of NaChBac expression compared with open-rectifier potassium-channel expression on behavior, reciprocal rescue of behavior by coexpression, clock oscillation, and direct electrophysiological recordings of muscle and photoreceptor neurons expressing NaChBac. Furthermore, hyperpolarization of LN_v membrane potential after the targeted expression of open-rectifier potassium channels to these cells causes accumulations of PDF in the cell bodies of the LN_Vs, providing further evidence that membrane potential regulates the rates of synthesis and/or trafficking of PDF as well as release. These results together suggest that regulated electrical excitability of the sLN_V plasma membrane underlies cycling PDF levels in the dorsomedial terminals, and that rendering the sLN_Vs hyperexcitable through NaChBac expression disrupts one or more of the cellular processes (synthesis, trafficking, or release) that determine PDF accumulation in the dorsomedial terminals. It remains unclear whether changes in neuronal membrane excitability directly influences PDF accumulation or whether this is caused by indirect effects via the molecular clock, because PDF accumulation appears to be restricted to pacemaker neurons (Nitabach, 2006).

The behavioral and circuit alterations caused by NaChBac expression in the LN_Vs may be attributable in part to an altered pattern of PDF release or a yet-unidentified neurotransmitter released by the LN_Vs, or to complex circuit properties of the pacemaker circuit. Regulated membrane electrical excitability of other neuropeptide-secreting neurons of the insect nervous system is known to be essential for appropriate control of the temporal patterns of peptide release. PDF may act as an intrinsic coupling signal within the circadian clock circuit that synchronizes multiple oscillators that otherwise free-run independently. This interpretation is consistent with a synchronizing role for PDF proposed on the basis of gradual phase dispersal within the sLN_V subgroup of Pdf⁰¹-null mutant flies in constant darkness. In addition, the results are consistent with the idea that temporally regulated PDF release by the LN_Vs synchronizes the circuit, and are inconsistent with the hypothesis that PDF plays a purely permissive role (Nitabach, 2006).

Recent electrophysiological evidence in another insect suggests a mechanism for PDF- and GABA-mediated synchronization of multiple oscillators of pacemaker circuits (Schneider, 2005). Extracellular multiunit recordings of the candidate circadian neurons in excised preparations of the cockroach accessory medulla exhibit ultradian oscillatory action potential firing that is synchronized by local application of pressure ejected PDF and GABA through glass micropipettes or bath applied GABA (Schneider, 2005). Similarly, circadian neurons in the fly may fire in PDF-regulated assemblies. Although there is as yet insufficient electrophysiological evidence to allow direct comparison of the results in Drosophila with this recent finding in the cockroach, this raises the interesting possibility that NaChBac expression in the Drosophila LN_Vs may result in desynchronized firing of pacemaker neurons throughout the circuit, starting with the LN_Vs themselves. This would be consistent with the biophysical property of NaChBac of low-threshold voltage activation. Interestingly, similar mechanisms for oscillator coupling at the circuit level may also be important in mammals. GABA also modulates phase coupling between the ventral and dorsal oscillators in brain slices prepared from the rat SCN (Nitabach, 2006).

The behavioral results confirm that the Drosophila circadian control circuit contains multiple clocks capable of oscillating independently and capable of independently controlling the pattern, but not the amount, of locomotor activity. They further indicate that properly regulated electrical excitability of the LN_Vs (and perhaps of particular importance, the LN_Vs) is required to synchronize these multiple clocks throughout the pacemaker neuronal circuit. The synchronization of multiple oscillators appears to be necessary to generate coherent single-period behavioral rhythms (Nitabach, 2006).

The reciprocal suppression by NaChBac of the arrhythmicity induced by Kir2.1, and by Kir2.1 of the complex rhythmicity induced by NaChBac, strongly supports the interpretation that NaChBac and Kir2.1 have opposite effects on the electrical excitability of the LN_Vs, with Kir2.1 decreasing excitability and NaChBac increasing excitability. When expressed individually in the LN_Vs, K⁺ channels and Na⁺ channels have opposite behavioral effects: hyperpolarizing K⁺-channel expression results in arrhythmic behavior, whereas depolarizing Na⁺-channel expression results in hyper-rhythmic behavior. The coexpression of these two channel types together results in functional reciprocal compensation, yielding nearly normal behavior (Nitabach, 2006).

In a previous studies, LN_V membrane potential was manipulated to be hypoexcitable through the targeted expression of modified open-rectifier or inward-rectifier potassium channels (Nitabach, 2002). This caused behavioral arrhythmicity and cell autonomous dampening of the free-running molecular clock in LN_V neurons in constant darkness, along with no discernable changes in the cycling of the molecular clock in downstream pacemaker neuronal subgroups at circadian day 2. Those results are consistent with the findings that desynchrony of downstream cell groups does not become apparent in pdf⁰¹-null mutant flies until 2 d in constant darkness. In the present study, LN_V hyperexcitability induces trans-synaptic changes in the free-running temporal pattern of clock protein accumulation in the dorsal neuron subgroups DN1 and DN2. Thus, the DN neuronal groups appear to be functionally downstream of the LN_V neurons in the pacemaker circuit. In negative control flies, the DN1s oscillate in phase with the sLN_Vs and LN_Ds, maintaining synchrony on both days 2 and 5 after release into constant darkness from a diurnal 12 h light/dark entraining regime, whereas the DN2s gradually advance from synchrony in 12 h light/dark to a 12 h phase difference by circadian day 5. The DN2s of control flies exhibit peak PDP1 accumulation at CT14 on day 2 in constant darkness and at CT10-CT14 on day 5 in constant darkness. This gradual shift of DN2 PDP1 oscillation from synchrony with the other cell groups in LD to a 12 h phase advance after 5 d in constant darkness is consistent with observations of DN2 PER cycling. In pdf>NaChBac1 flies expressing NaChBac in the LN_Vs, the DN1s exhibit a PDP1 molecular peak 8 h earlier than control flies on day 2 in constant darkness, and by circadian day 5 this peak has significantly damped and an additional significant peak has appeared at CT22. The DN2s of pdf>NaChBac1 flies exhibit a peak of PDP1 accumulation at CT14 on day 2 in constant darkness, in phase with control flies; by day 5 in constant darkness they peak at CT6, 4–8 h earlier than in controls. This phase shift suggests that the DN2 molecular oscillator of pdf>NaChBac1 flies is running faster than that of control flies. These differences in the temporal pattern of PDP1 accumulation in the DN1s and DN2s induced by NaChBac expression in the LN_Vs indicate that properly regulated electrical activity is required for normal patterns of molecular oscillation in these dorsal cell groups (Nitabach, 2006).

The DN2s may be capable of independently driving behavioral outputs, and are possibly the cellular substrate for the ~22 h short-period component of the complex behavioral rhythmicity exhibited by flies expressing NaChBac in the LN_Vs. The cellular substrates for the ~25.5 h long-period component are likely to reside in other cells within the circuit. In control pdf>TM3 flies, robust free-running PER oscillation is observed in the sLN_V,LN_D, and DN1 neurons after 5 d in constant darkness, with trough levels of PER in the second half of subjective day. The differences in the spatiotemporal pattern of PER accumulation induced by NaCh-Bac expression in the LN_Vs confirm, as indicated by the effects on PDP1 accumulation, that hyperexcitation of electrical activity in the LN_Vs causes desynchronization of the coupling and phase of molecular oscillation in dorsal clock neurons (Nitabach, 2006).

Multiple oscillators are distributed throughout the pacemaker circuit in Drosophila. The present study confirms and extends evidence for multiple oscillators in the pacemaker circuit in Drosophila. The independent oscillators driving the multiple period components of the behavioral rhythms that were observed do not appear to correspond directly to the 'morning' and 'evening' oscillators, which have been localized to the LN_Vs and LN_Ds, respectively. The current results emphasize that the activity of the LN_Vs controls the synchronization of independent oscillators throughout the pacemaker circuit. The normal pattern of DN1 and DN2 clock oscillation requires properly regulated electrical excitability of the LN_Vs. Further, the results suggest that the DN2s, and at least some other cell groups, possess independent output pathways to the downstream locomotor circuitry (Nitabach, 2006).

This study introduces a novel method for inducing electrical hyperexcitability in neurons of interest by the expression of the low-threshold voltage-gated sodium channel NaChBac. This method is likely to be useful for the analysis of other neural circuits. In another study (Luan, 2006), the utility of the NaChBac channel for enhancing excitability in other neurons has also been demonstrated. Targeted expression of ion channel subunits in vivo provides a powerful means for precisely perturbing neuronal membrane excitability to probe the role of activity on neuronal development and function. Initial methods to exogenously regulate electrical excitability in neurons in vivo have used potassium channel expression to electrically silence neurons. Exogenous manipulation of electrical excitability within specific Drosophila neurons can be combined with finer parsing of neural circuits using GAL80 and other genetic approaches (Nitabach, 2006).

This study has shown that aberrations of electrical excitability in Drosophila neurons, either hyperexcitability induced by NaChBac or hypoexcitability induced by Kir2.1, can be rescued by coexpression of an ion channel with an opposite effect on excitability. This provides reason to believe that such an approach to neurological disorders of aberrant electrical activity such as epilepsy might indeed be feasible (Nitabach, 2006).

During the state of behavioral desynchronization under LL conditions, an internal desynchronization was observed simultaneously in PER oscillations among subsets of pacemaker neurons. One interpretation of these data is that constant light causes internal desynchronization between these pacemaker neurons that then in turn drive the behavioral outputs. However, it must be acknowledged that this is only a correlation, and, although the hypothesis is favored that the split molecular rhythms are driving the split locomotor rhythms, it is possible that they are merely tracking or entraining to a split rhythm driven by other pacemakers. For example, the split rhythms might be driven by subsets of dorsal neurons. The hypothesis is preferred that the split behavioral rhythms were driven by the desynchronized PDF-positive LN_v and the 5th s-LN_v/extra LN_d cells for two reasons. First, accumulating evidence points to the lateral neurons (LN_v and LN_d cells) as major pacemaker cells, whereas the dorsal neurons (the DN₁, DN₂, and DN₃ cells) are not sufficient for locomotor rhythms under constant darkness. Second, in rodents, a similar behavioral desynchronization was correlated with a dissociation of clock gene expression between ventrolateral and dorsomedial subdivisions of the SCN. The established role of this brain center as the circadian clock has led to the uncontroversial conclusion that the split molecular oscillations drive the split behavioral oscillations. It is suggested that the same phenomenon is occurring in main (i.e., small LN_v cells) and evening (i.e., 5th s-LN_v and extra LN_d cells) neuronal oscillators in Drosophila (Rieger, 2006).

The PRC delay zone is the region impacted most strongly by E-cell Sgg overexpression, indicating that the lights-off early night region is most important to E-cell function and light entrainment. Exposure to light in this interval should mimic long days (summer), which, it is speculated, will delay phase by many hours so that “evening” output of the following day will coincide with the objective evening of the environment. Even the short nights of summer are probably enough time for E-clocks to accumulate sufficient Tim and Per, shuttle them into the nucleus, and reconstitute the rhythmic substrate observed in the Sgg-overexpressing brains in LL. In contrast, M-cells need darkness to cycle robustly. They will become the master clocks and drive the system whenever lights fail to turn on more than 12 hr past lights-off, i.e., during the long nights of winter that mimic the beginning of a DD cycle. Since the intrinsic pacemaker program of M-cells in darkness relies on the changing nature of clock proteins during the night, it is hypothesized that the activity phases under long nights (winter) are locked to lights-off. This suggestion is supported by preliminary data and previous observations showing that per transcription remains locked to lights-off under different entrainment regimes. M-cells are also capable of fully entraining the system in the PRC interval that determines a phase advance (late night). This is consistent with their predicted role in generating an advanced evening output, coincident with the early evenings typical of winter. Otherwise put, long summer days should underlie light primacy as well as long and prominent evening delay zones; both suggest E-cell dominance. Night primacy and M-cells should dominate under winter conditions. This concept endows E- and M-cells with the properties originally envisioned by the Pittendrigh and Daan (1976) dual-oscillator model of entrainment (Stoleru, 2007).

Not all animals may be as light-sensitive as are fruit flies, but recent studies showed that even species such as hamsters and humans are more sensitive than supposed. The synchronization of Syrian and Siberian hamsters to different photoperiods was facilitated under dim night illumination (<0.005 lux) as compared with DD. Furthermore, the incidence of bimodal activity patterns and the interval between both components increased under LM conditions. In humans, dawn simulations at low light intensities were found to phase advance the circadian melatonin and the activity rhythm. Together with the results presented here, these studies suggest that clock function in many species is conspicuously altered by nocturnal illumination as experienced under dim moonlight. This finding might go back to the ability of primordial marine animals to synchronize their reproduction to the lunar cycle, an ability that is apparently lost in humans and other terrestrial animals. Presumably, many terrestrial organisms do not use their light sensitivity for moonlight detection, but for timing their clock to the increasing and decreasing irradiances during dusk and dawn. Further studies are necessary to reveal whether these animals hide at night from the moonlight so as not to confound their clocks, whether they switch to nocturnal activity (or become sleepless) during the full moon, or whether they use cryptochrome to distinguish moonlight from dawn and dusk (Bachleitner, 2007).

The results reveal that the PDF-expressing peptidergic lLNvs modulate arousal and wakeful behavior as well as sleep stability. Considering these functional studies, lLNvs appear to act as an arousal circuit that is physiologically activated by light and borders with, but is distinct from, the circadian pacemaker and downstream sleep circuits. A number of other recently described modulatory systems in Drosophila influence behavioral locomotion and sleep, including aminergic and GABAergic neurons. As noted, many of the overall features of morning and evening peaks in locomotor activity are retained when lLNv and other peptidergic neuronal subsets are hyperexcited. Considering the naturalistic implications, temporal-niche switching has been observed in a few animals, including the social ant species Camponotus compressus. Among the worker class of these ants, some individuals are diurnal and others nocturnal, and these plastic behavioral differences are associated with differences in their underlying free-running circadian period. On the basis of the current results, it is possible that activity changes in a relatively small number of arousal neurons could influence both short-term temporal-niche switching or long-term evolutionary commitment to a given temporal niche (Sheeba, 2008b).

Although the absence of PDF severely affects Drosophila activity rhythms in DD, the exact function of the neuropeptide in the adult clock neuronal network remains unclear. In LD, PDF is required to produce a morning activity peak and to properly phase the evening peak, but not to entrain the brain clock. The behavioral phenotypes of PDF receptor mutants resemble that of the pdf⁰¹ mutant. PDFR is expressed in all clock neurons except the large ventral lateral neurons (l-LNvs), supporting a role of PDF in maintaining phase coherence within the adult clock network in DD. The loss of PER oscillations in the DN2s of pdf⁰¹ larvae demonstrates a clear and novel role of PDF in transmitting not only phase information but also a synchronizing signal without which the receiving neurons are not entrained in LD (Picot, 2009).

The current results show that the CRY-less DN2s are 'blind' neurons that perceive light indirectly. The PDF receptor rescue experiments strongly suggest that PDF acts on its receptor on the larval DN2s themselves, which are located in the vicinity of the LN axon terminals. Furthermore, DN2s possess a wide and dense neuritic network that borders on the axons of the LNs over a large fraction of their length. However, it cannot be ruled out that expression of the receptor in the (PDF-negative) fifth LN is involved in synchronizing the DN2s downstream, through PDF-independent mechanisms (Picot, 2009).

The PDF-negative fifth LN is also a CRY-negative clock neuron, but it cycles in phase with the CRY-positive neurons of the larval brain. The visual input to the PDF-expressing LNs appears sufficient to phase them normally even in cry^b mutants. It could thus be expected to entrain the CRY-less fifth LN in phase with the other larval LNs, as observed, in contrast to the CRY-less DN2s. A direct input from the visual system to the fifth LN is also consistent with its PDF-independent entrainment by LD cycles. Similarly, light entrainment of the larval DN1s in cry^b mutants is consistent with their suggested connection to the visual system. Thus, the CRY-less DN2s would be the only larval clock neurons devoid of such a connection (Picot, 2009).

Adult eclosion rhythms depend on the PDF-expressing LNs and appear to require the PDF-dependent clock that resides in the prothoracic gland. Since the larval DN2s project in the pars intercerebralis, a region of the brain that sends projections to the prothoracic gland, they could play a role in this physiologically important clock function. These results raise the possibility that the damped PER oscillations in the DN2s of the pdf⁰¹ mutants participate to their eclosion phenotype (Picot, 2009).

The DN2s are the only larval clock neurons that are phased identically by light and temperature, but their temperature entrainment appears independent of any LN-derived signal. PER oscillations in the DN2s have a larger amplitude in HC cycles than in LD cycles, also suggesting a prominent role of temperature in their entrainment. Conversely, the molecular oscillations of the PDF-positive LNs have a larger amplitude in LD compared with HC cycles. In the latter, the molecular oscillations of the PDF-expressing LNs seem to follow those in the DN2s, with a large phase change compared with LD conditions. The DN1s and the PDF-negative fifth LN, in contrast, share another phase that is slightly advanced. Interestingly, behavioral and transcriptome data in adult flies indicate that HC cycles result in a general phase advance relative to LD cycles. Cooperative synchronization of the clock by light and temperature likely requires temperature changes to act earlier than light changes since changes in temperature always lag behind changes in solar illumination in nature. The very different relative phasing of the larval clock neurons in HC versus LD cycles suggests different ecological constraints on this life stage, spent mostly burrowed in food, in which light may be a weaker Zeitgeber, and in which the lag between temperature and light changes may be quite different (Picot, 2009).

When a functional clock is absent from the DN2s (and the fifth LN), the larval PDF-expressing LNs are unable to entrain to thermocycles, whereas they autonomously entrain to LD cycles. It remains possible that autonomous temperature entrainment of the larval LNs (but not the DN2s) requires per transcriptional regulation, which the GAL4-UAS system is lacking. But the results demonstrate the existence of a control exerted on the LN clock by CRY-negative clock cells when temperature is the synchronizing cue. Although a role of the fifth LN cannot be ruled out, the absence of autonomous photoperception by the DN2s nicely fits with a role in temperature entrainment. The high cycling amplitude of the DN2s in thermocycles and the locking of the phase of the LNs on that of the DN2s in these conditions strongly support their role in the temperature entrainment of the LNs (Picot, 2009).

Additional studies should investigate whether the DN2s communicate with the LNs via fibers that appear to run along the dorsal projection of the LNs. Alternatively, the dense dendritic-like network of the DN2s could ensure reciprocal exchanges between them and the LNs. A model is thus proposed whereby, in the larval brain, the DN2s and the four PDF-positive LNs form a distinct subnetwork, with the LNs entraining the DN2s in LD, whereas the opposite is true in HC). What becomes of their hierarchy in constant conditions, after entrainment stops? Their relative phases appear to change little at least during the first 2 d after entrainment, whether they have been set in antiphase by LD entrainment, or in phase by HC entrainment. This suggests that, whatever the entraining regimen, the LNs and the DN2s run autonomously in constant conditions. However, it cannot be excluded that one of the two groups still dominates but requires more time after the end of entrainment to shift the phase of the other (Picot, 2009).

The rhythmic behavior of the adult flies that emerge from the temperature-entrained larvae is almost in antiphase compared with the one of flies entrained by light during the larval stage. This strongly suggests that the phase of the adult rhythms is set by the antiphasic oscillations of the larval PDF-positive LNs, consistent with these cells being the only neurons in which molecular cycling persists throughout metamorphosis. It is thus believed that the large phase shift of adult activity can be accounted for simply by the large phase shift of molecular oscillations in the PDF-expressing LNs (Picot, 2009).

It is often assumed that temperature affects the molecular clock directly and identically in all clock cells, as opposed to light, which requires dedicated input pathways. However, in the adult, thermocycles phase the brain clock differently from all peripheral clocks, as judged from whole-tissue oscillations of a luciferase reporter enzyme (Glaser, 2005). Recent data suggest that subsets of clock neurons in the Drosophila adult brain may indeed be dedicated to temperature entrainment. In experiments combining LD and HC entrainment, all DN groups, as well as the less studied lateral posterior neurons (LPNs), seem to preferentially follow thermocycles, whereas the other LNs preferentially follow LD cycles (Miyasako, 2007). Although adult PDF⁺ LNs are able to entrain to thermocycles in the absence of any other functional clock, they do not seem to be required for (and actually slowed down) the temperature entrainment of activity rhythms, whereas the PDF-negative LPNs appear to play a prominent role in such conditions (Picot, 2009).

The current results indicate that a similar specialization toward light or temperature entrainment exists in the larval brain. The DN2s, which appear to be the most temperature-responsive clock neurons, are by themselves completely blind. Conversely, the four PDF-positive LNs, which may be the most light-sensitive clock neurons (with both CRY and the visual system as inputs), appear almost temperature blind, and depend on the DN2s for temperature entrainment. PER-negative DN2s do not allow PER oscillations in the larval LNs, suggesting that entrainment of the latter in HC cycles depends on clock function in the former. The hierarchy of clock neurons thus appears very different during entrainment of the clock network by one or the other Zeitgeber (Picot, 2009).

Light has profound behavioral effects on almost all animals, and nocturnal animals show sensitivity to extremely low light levels. Crepuscular, i.e., dawn/dusk-active animals such as Drosophila melanogaster are thought to show far less sensitivity to light. This study reports that Drosophila respond to extremely low levels of monochromatic blue light. Light levels three to four orders of magnitude lower than previously believed impact circadian entrainment and the light-induced stimulation of locomotion known as positive behavioral masking. GAL4;UAS-mediated rescue of tyrosine hydroxylase (DTH) mutant (ple) flies was used to study the roles of dopamine in these processes. Evidence is presented for two roles of dopamine in circadian behaviors. First, rescue with either a wild-type DTH or a DTH mutant lacking neural expression leads to weak circadian rhythmicity, indicating a role for strictly regulated DTH and dopamine in robust circadian rhythmicity. Second, the DTH rescue strain deficient in neural dopamine selectively shows a defect in circadian entrainment to low light, whereas another response to light, positive masking, has normal light sensitivity. These findings imply separable pathways from light input to the behavioral outputs of masking versus circadian entrainment, with only the latter dependent on dopamine (Hirsch, 2010).

Sensitivity to extremely low levels of light is most commonly found in nocturnal animals. These animals, such as nocturnal geckos or insects such as nocturnal hawkmoths, can not only sense extremely low levels of light but can also discern colors at light intensities well below those to which diurnal animals are sensitive. Humans and diurnal vertebrates lose color vision at light intensities comparable to dim moonlight at irradiances of 3-10 nW/cm². In contrast, nocturnal hawkmoths and geckos can discern colors even at intensities of ~0.01-0.3 nW/cm² and normally function in starlight, ~0.001 nW/cm². Extreme light sensitivity in nocturnal insects commonly involves adaptations to their compound eyes to allow summation of photons from many individual ommatidia. These visual system adaptations are not seen in diurnal insects such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Accordingly, current data accord Drosophila with rather modest light sensitivity. For light-dependent entrainment of circadian rhythmicity, ~40 nW/cm² blue light was thought to be required, although subsequent studies show entrainment by 1-5 nW/cm² white light. Wild-type flies are now thought to entrain at ~0.04 nW/cm² blue light (C. Helfrich-Forster, personal communication to Hirsch, 2010). An intensity of ~0.5 nW/cm² white light is reported to cause positive behavioral masking, the largely circadian clock-independent stimulation of locomotion. For comparison, this study found that a dark-adapted human observer loses the ability to perceive the diffuse planar blue light sources used in the present study at intensities of ~0.01-0.03 nW/cm². This intensity is difficult to compare to published human perception studies, which commonly use short duration flashes of focal light (Hirsch, 2010).

This study found unexpectedly strong light sensitivity for Drosophila melanogaster, with behavioral masking and circadian entrainment at intensities as low as 0.001 nW/cm² and at least two roles for dopamine in circadian rhythmicity. First, DTH rescue flies showed poor behavioral rhythmicity in constant dark conditions, independent of whether dopamine levels were rescued in the nervous system. Second, it was found that neuronal DTH rescue flies lacking neuronal dopamine showed reduced light sensitivity for circadian entrainment, whereas light sensitivity of behavioral masking was unaffected. Dopamine has several roles in Drosophila neural function, from modulation of locomotor behaviors and arousal states to learning and memory, but a role for dopamine in insect light-dependent circadian behavioral entrainment is novel (Hirsch, 2010).

The two circadian phenotypes likely represent separate roles for dopamine, presumably in different regions of the nervous system, because reduced amplitude of rhythmicity, as seen in DTH rescue lines, is normally associated with higher rather than lower efficacy of reentrainment. The dopaminergic system in Drosophila is highly rhythmic, as evidenced by rhythmicity in responsiveness to dopamine agonists and by the rhythmic transcription of the tyrosine hydroxylase gene ple, which encodes the rate-limiting enzyme in dopamine biosynthesis. The rhythmicity of the ple transcript may explain the poor rhythmicity in ple rescue animals. These animals have near-normal levels of brain dopamine in an apparently normal cellular pattern, but the inclusion of the GAL4 transcription factor into the regulatory cascade will almost certainly interfere with normal temporal cycling of the DTH transcript. Note that significant diurnal variation in levels of brain dopamine in brain extracts have not been detected, but this does not preclude diurnal variation in dopamine neuron subsets (Hirsch, 2010).

Low-light circadian entrainment is disrupted in the brain dopamine-deficient DTHg^FS±ple flies. The simplest mechanism for the disruption of low-light circadian entrainment would be due to alterations in the photoreceptive pathway, which could be via cryptochrome (CRY) or visual photoreceptors. There is some support for dopaminergic involvement in the CRY pathway, because Sathyanarayanan (2008) identified ple in a screen for genes that, when targeted by RNA interference, have a strong inhibitory effect on light-dependent degradation of CRY and timeless (TIM) in cultured cells. This could indicate a positive role for dopamine in light-dependent degradation of these molecules, providing a potential mechanism for the reduced light sensitivity for circadian entrainment that was observed in the absence of dopamine (Hirsch, 2010).

Alternatively, it is known that visual photoreceptors are involved in dim-light entrainment because genetic loss of all photoreceptive visual organs results in at least a three-order-of-magnitude reduction in blue light sensitivity for circadian entrainment. Analogous studies in mice show an ~60-fold reduction in dim-light sensitivity for entrainment in animals lacking both rods and cones (Hirsch, 2010).

A role for dopamine in fly visual function has some support in that cyclic AMP (cAMP) can slow the response to light in a preparation of isolated Drosophila photoreceptors (Chyb, 1999), and this effect can be mimicked by application of octopamine or dopamine, an effect interpreted as enhanced adaptation to dark. Dopamine signaling, via cAMP second-messenger pathways, is not currently considered part of the main insect visual transduction pathway. However, dopamine involvement could have been missed if it has an exclusive role in a neural pathway selectively required for circadian entrainment by dim light (Hirsch, 2010).

There is strong support of a role for dopamine functioning in the vertebrate retina, which makes visual involvement of dopamine in the fly all the more likely. The vertebrate retina contains autonomous circadian oscillators that are thought to allow the retina to prepare for the large difference in light intensity between day and night. Central to this rhythmicity are opposing and rhythmic roles for melatonin and dopamine, with release of each modulator inhibiting synthesis and/or release of the other. The best defined role for dopamine in the vertebrate circadian oscillator is in entraining fetal rodents prior to light exposure, a capacity lost in adults. This role of dopamine could be related to the roles that have been uncovered in adult Drosophila (Hirsch, 2010).

The selective effect of neural dopamine on low-light entrainment versus low-light masking behavior implies separable pathways involved in modulating these behaviors, a novel finding because previous studies have only identified circadian components with parallel effects on masking (Mazzoni, 2005). The best defined synaptic connections from eye to circadian neurons are the projections from the Drosophila eyelet, a remnant of the larval photoreceptive Bolwig's organ. This photoreceptive organ makes projections that terminate in close apposition to neurites from the small and large ventral lateral neurons, neurons key to circadian rhythmicity. Connections from the main visual photoreceptors to these circadian neurons must be indirect because the rod-like outer photoreceptor ommatidia terminate in the optic lamina, and the cone-like central ommatidia terminate in the optic medulla. Nonetheless, dopamine could be acting as a neuromodulator in any of these pathways to increase sensitivity to a light-dependent signal. The genetic tools available in Drosophila should prove useful to precisely identify these pathways (Hirsch, 2010).

Cross-species conservation of sleep-like behaviors predicts the presence of conserved molecular mechanisms underlying sleep. However, limited experimental evidence of conservation exists. This prediction is tested directly in this study. During lethargus, Caenorhabditis elegans spontaneously sleep in short bouts that are interspersed with bouts of spontaneous locomotion. Twenty-six genes required for Drosophila melanogaster sleep were identified. Twenty orthologous C. elegans genes were selected based on similarity. Their effect on C. elegans sleep and arousal during the last larval lethargus was assessed. The 20 most similar genes altered both the quantity of sleep and arousal thresholds. In 18 cases, the direction of change was concordant with Drosophila studies published previously. Additionally, a conserved genetic pathway was delineated by which dopamine regulates sleep and arousal. In C. elegans neurons, G-alpha S, adenylyl cyclase, and protein kinase A act downstream of D1 dopamine receptors to regulate these behaviors. Finally, a quantitative analysis of genes examined herein revealed that C. elegans arousal thresholds were directly correlated with amount of sleep during lethargus. However, bout duration varies little and was not correlated with arousal thresholds. The comprehensive analysis presented in this study suggests that conserved genes and pathways are required for sleep in invertebrates and, likely, across the entire animal kingdom. The genetic pathway delineated in this study implicates G-alpha S and previously known genes downstream of dopamine signaling in sleep. Quantitative analysis of various components of quiescence suggests that interdependent or identical cellular and molecular mechanisms are likely to regulate both arousal and sleep entry (Singh, 2014).

Sleep homeostasis is crucial for sleep regulation. The role of epigenetic regulation in sleep homeostasis is unestablished. Previous studies showed that octopamine is important for sleep homeostasis. However, the regulatory mechanism of octopamine reception in sleep is unknown. This study identified an epigenetic regulatory cascade (Stuxnet-Polycomb-Octβ2R) that modulates the octopamine receptor in Drosophila. stuxnet positively regulates Octβ2R through repression of Polycomb in the ellipsoid body of the adult fly brain and Octβ2R is one of the major receptors mediating octopamine function in sleep homeostasis. In response to octopamine, Octβ2R transcription is inhibited as a result of stuxnet downregulation. This feedback through the Stuxnet-Polycomb-Octβ2R cascade is crucial for sleep homeostasis regulation. This study demonstrates a Stuxnet-Polycomb-Octβ2R-mediated epigenetic regulatory mechanism for octopamine reception, thus providing an example of epigenetic regulation of sleep homeostasis (Zhao, 2021).

Drosophila has been used as a model system to study mechanisms of sleep regulation. The first studies on sleep in Drosophila revealed that they periodically enter a quiescence state that meets a set of criteria for sleep. Drosophila sleep is monitored normally by a Drosophila activity monitoring system (DAMS) and is defined as immobility for 5 min or longer which is a sleep bout. Drosophila sleep mainly happens at night, while a period of siesta is in the mid-day. For example, total sleep time is around 380 min (male) and 250 min (female) during the day time, and 480 min (male) and 490 min (female) during the night time in w1118 (Zhao, 2021).

In Drosophila, central complex structures, especially the ellipsoid body (EB) and fan-shaped body (FSB), are important for sleep homeostasis regulation. Activation of dorsal FSB neurons is sufficient to induce sleep. The dorsal FSB also integrates some sleep inhibiting signals. Both dorsal FSB and EB ring 2 are important in sleep homeostasis. Recently, the helicon cells were found to connect the dorsal FSB and EB Ring 2, indicating that these EB and FSB are connected (Zhao, 2021).

Multiple studies indicate that the epigenetic mechanisms are involved in circadian regulation. However, a direct link between epigenetic regulation and sleep homeostasis is not yet established (Zhao, 2021).

Octopamine (OA) in Drosophila is a counterpart of vertebrate noradrenaline. Previous studies in Drosophila showed that OA is a wake-promoting neurotransmitter and plays an important role in regulating both sleep amount and sleep homeostasis. The mutants of the OA synthesis pathway show an increased total sleep. Activation of OA signaling inhibits sleep homeostasis, while in OA synthesis pathway mutants, an enhanced sleep homeostasis is observed. Study of the neural circuit responsible for the sleep/wake effect of OA showed that octopaminergic ASM neuronsproject to the pars intercerebralis (PI), where OAMB (one of the OA receptors)-expressing insulin-like peptide (ILP)-secreting neurons act as downstream mediators of OA signaling. However, the effects of manipulating ASM neurons or ILP-secreting neurons are much weaker than those observed by manipulating all OA secreting neurons. Moreover, the effect of octopamine is not completely suppressed in the OAMB286 mutant, arguing that another receptor or circuit may participate in this process (Zhao, 2021).

Eight OA receptors are identified to date: OAMB, Octβ1R, Octβ2R, Octβ3R, TAR1, TAR2, TAR3, and Octα2R. Although the expression pattern of OA is identified, the endogenous expression profile of these receptors is lacking. A previous study demonstrated that the mushroom body-expressed OAMB mediates the sleep:wake effect of OA. Recently, Octβ2R was shown to be important for the OA effect on endurance exercise adaptation. How the versatility of OA function is mediated by the diverse array of its receptors needs further study. Moreover, the upstream regulatory mechanisms of OA receptors are still unknown (Zhao, 2021).

A previous study showed that Stuxnet (Stx) is important in mediating Polycomb (Pc) protein degradation in the proteasome (Du, 2016). Stx, which is an ubiquitin like protein, mediates Polycomb (Pc) protein degradation through binding to the proteasome with a UBL domain at its N terminus and to Polycomb through a Pc-binding domain. stx level changes result in a series of homeotic transformation phenotypes. Pc is an epigenetic regulator functioning in Polycomb Group (PcG) Complexes. Although it is reported that PcG component E(Z) is involved in circadian regulation, the role of stx in adult physiological process is unknown (Zhao, 2021).

This study identified the role of the epigenetic regulator stx in sleep regulation. stx positively regulates Octβ2R through regulation of Polycomb in the EB of the adult fly brain. Further study demonstrated that the Stuxnet-Polycomb-Octβ2R cascade plays an important role in sleep regulation. In order to elucidate the role of this Stuxnet-Polycomb-Octβ2R cascade in sleep regulation, the role of various Octβ receptors was systematically identified in sleep regulation. Octβ2R was found to be one of the receptors that mediates OA function in sleep homeostasis. More interestingly, it was found that stx was OA-responsive depending on the Octβ1R. Based on these data, it is proposed that the Stuxnet-Polycomb-Octβ2R cascade provides a feedback mechanism for OA signals to the EB to regulate sleep homeostasis and sleep amount (Zhao, 2021).

This study highlights the importance of epigenetic regulation on sleep. Although epigenetic regulation was intensively studied in adult pathological processes such as cancer, epigenetic factors have been far less studied in other physiological processes such as sleep. This study provides an example of the maintenance role of PcG complex in sleep regulation. Although the core PcG complex component Pc is ubiquitously expressed, its regulator stx is tissue specifically distributed, and this distribution may keep appropriate activity of Pc as well as the PcG complex in a tissue-specific manner. The factors regulating the tissue specificity of stx expression need to be further investigated (Zhao, 2021).

A previous study found that mutation of Octβ2R does not have an obvious sleep phenotype. The current data were compared with the published Octβ2R^f05679 mutant data. Although Octβ2R^f05679 mutant was shown not significantly affected total sleep, this study found that the Octβ2R^f05679 has mild effect on sleep. Other Octβ2R mutants were tested, and it was found that the male flies from these mutations indeed have sleep phenotype (Zhao, 2021).

Published studies have shown that the sleep phenotype of octopamine pathway mutants is different between video-based method and DAM-based method. For example, based on DAM data, the TβH mutant resulted in increased sleep per day, while the same mutant showed decreased sleep based on video data. This study used the video-based method to repeat the TβH mutant phenotype. The results showed that compared with the control flies, the TβH mutant got significantly less sleep. This result is consistent with the previously published data. Through close observation of TβH mutant and control flies, this study found that this mutant has much more frequent grooming behavior than the controls. The TβH mutant and control flies were video recorded for 10 min between ZT3.5 and ZT4.5. The results showed a statistically significant increase of the total number of grooming case. The difference between video-based method and DAM-based method is that these grooming behaviors can be detected in video-based methods, but not in DAM-based methods. Multiple studies have established a positive correlation between octopamine treatment and grooming behavior. Theoretically, TβH allele should result in a decrease in octopamine synthesis. The opposite phenotype may be caused by increased tyramine in TβH mutant or by other feedback regulation. The alleles for Octβ2R receptor used in this study show a similar grooming behavior as the control flies. The previously published octβ2R knockout allele should be a stronger one. The difference of sleep phenotypes between video-based and DAM-based methods may be due to the grooming behavior induced by the massive decrease of octopamine detection. Or other unrelated effects caused by the compensation effect previously reported. One hypothesis is that the significant change of grooming behavior probably masks the sleep behavior. The relationship between grooming and sleep needs to be further clarified. The detection of the sleep phenotype without significant changes in grooming phenotype may be a better strategy to get reliable sleep phenotype. If the increase of grooming in TβH mutant is a side effect caused by the increased tyramine, the identification of the phenotypes of octopamine treatment or collective phenotype of octopamine receptors may be more reliable ways to draw conclusions on the function of octopamine. Furthermore, whether grooming is epistatic to sleep is a problem worthy of further study (Zhao, 2021).

Two aspects of sleep homeostasis need to be further studied. First, this study found that Octβ2R and stx colocalize in a subset of EB neurons. In a previously study, EB R2 neurons were found to be responsible for sleep homeostasis regulation. The relationship of these two groups of EB neurons needs further study. Second, the OA-treated Octβ2R mutant has more sleep recovery than the control. This indicates that OA induces more sleep recovery in the condition of Octβ2R downregulation. It seems that in this condition OA induces certain pathways to counteract its role in sleep homeostasis. One possibility is that Octβ2R negatively regulates Octβ3R which results in increased sleep pressure in the absence of Octβ2R. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanism (Zhao, 2021).

The results suggest the stx-Pc-Octβ2R regulatory cascade serves as a buffering step for OA function in sleep homeostasis. Two-way regulation of OA on stx leads to reverse changes of stx-the more OA, the less stx and vice versa. Through the function of stx-Pc-Octβ2R regulatory cascade, the Octβ2R transcription is changed accordingly. Variation of Octβ2R transcription could buffer the OA response. As a result, the unfavorable effect of OA causing dramatic decrease of sleep amount and homeostasis could be compensated by its receptor (Zhao, 2021).

The Drosophila mushroom body (MB) is a key associative memory center that has also been implicated in the control of sleep. However, the identity of MB neurons underlying homeostatic sleep regulation, as well as the types of sleep signals generated by specific classes of MB neurons, has remained poorly understood. Two MB output neuron (MBON) classes whose axons convey sleep control signals from the MB to converge in the same downstream target region: a cholinergic sleep-promoting MBON class and a glutamatergic wake-promoting MBON class have been previously identified. This study deploys a combination of neurogenetic, behavioral, and physiological approaches to identify and mechanistically dissect sleep-controlling circuits of the MB. The existence of two segregated excitatory synaptic microcircuits that propagate homeostatic sleep information from different populations of intrinsic MB "Kenyon cells" (KCs) to specific sleep-regulating MBONs was revealed: sleep-promoting KCs increase sleep by preferentially activating the cholinergic MBONs, while wake-promoting KCs decrease sleep by preferentially activating the glutamatergic MBONs. Importantly, activity of the sleep-promoting MB microcircuit is increased by sleep deprivation and is necessary for homeostatic rebound sleep (i.e., the increased sleep that occurs after, and in compensation for, sleep lost during deprivation). These findings reveal for the first time specific functional connections between subsets of KCs and particular MBONs and establish the identity of synaptic microcircuits underlying transmission of homeostatic sleep signals in the MB (Sitaraman, 2015a).

This study has used a combination of sophisticated cell-specific genetic manipulations with behavioral sleep analysis and optical electrophysiology to provide an unprecedented level of detailed understanding of the propagation of homeostatic sleep signals through microcircuits of the Drosophila MB. Specifically, two parallel segregated compartment-specific microcircuits were identified that regulate sleep: a wake-promoting microcircuit that originates in α'/β' and γm KCs and converges onto MBON-γ5β'2a/β'2mp/β'2mp_bilateral and a sleep-promoting microcircuit that originates in γd KCs and converges onto MBON-γ2α'1. Importantly, it was shown not only that exogenous activation of these microcircuits is sufficient to regulate sleep, but also that physiological manipulation of sleep need by sleep deprivation alters their endogenous neural activity, and propagation of these neural signals to downstream targets outside the MB is essential for the generation of homeostatic rebound sleep (Sitaraman, 2015a).

Previous studies using broadly expressed traditional GAL4 drivers have implicated the MB in the control of sleep, but due to lack of appropriate cell-specific drivers, were unable to resolve specific sleep-regulating MB cell types, although very recent studies have specifically implicated α'/β' KCs and MB-MV1/PPL1 dopaminergic MB neurons in regulating sleep. Moreover, previous studies have not established a role for the MB in the generation and/or propagation of homeostatic sleep signals necessary for rebound following sleep deprivation. While a mutation of the amnesiac gene, which is expressed in a pair of neurons innervating the MB lobes, was shown to impair homeostatic sleep rebound, rebound was not found to be strongly affected by very broad synaptic inactivation of the MB KCs that comprise the lobes. This report has established a comprehensive catalog of the KCs and MBONs that control sleep, making use of a novel library of split-GAL4 lines targeting each of the cell types of the MB. Combining sophisticated behavioral genetic and optical electrophysiology approaches has allowed determination of the roles of specific MB cell types in encoding homeostatic sleep signals under physiological conditions. Then specific synaptic microcircuits were identified linking sleep-controlling KCs to sleep-controlling MBONs, revealing the synaptic mechanisms underlying the propagation of homeostatic sleep signals through the MB associative network (Sitaraman, 2015a).

Based on these results, a detailed mechanistic model is proposed for homeostatic control of sleep by excitatory microcircuits in the Drosophila MB. Wake-promoting MBON-γ5β'2a/β'2mp/β'2mp_bilateral and sleep-promoting MBON-γ2α'1 each receive anatomical inputs from both wake-promoting γm and α'/β' KCs and sleep-promoting γd KCs. However, functional segregation of sleep control information into separate microcircuits is enforced by greater synaptic weights between γm and α'/β' KCs and MBON-γ5β'2a/β'2mp/β'2mp_bilateral and between γd KCs and MBON-γ2α'1. Anatomical studies indicate that the axons of MBON-γ5β'2a/β'2mp/β'2mp_bilateral and MBON-γ2α'1 exit the MB and terminate convergently in the superior medial protocerebrum (SMP) and crepine (CRE) neuropils. Intriguingly, dendrites of some central complex (CX) neurons-a brain region involved in locomotor control and implicated in sleep and sleep homeostasis-arborize in SMP and CRE. It is thus speculated that segregated homeostatic sleep-promoting and wake-promoting signals are generated in the KC-to-MBON microcircuits of the MB and propagate to the CX, where they are integrated to ultimately control sleep. Future studies are needed to further refine the understanding of the neurochemistry and physiology of the MB sleep control microcircuits, explore the mechanisms by which sleep deprivation alters microcircuit activity, and elucidate the connections between the MB and its downstream sleep control targets. In light of the relationship between sleep, learning, and synaptic homeostasis and the recent discovery that sleep-regulating MBON-γ5β'2a/β'2mp/β'2mp_bilateral and MBON-γ2α'1 are also important for some forms of associative learning, it will be of great interest to determine how activity of the sleep-controlling MB synaptic microcircuits influences memory formation and consolidation (Sitaraman, 2015a).

The dynamic nature of sleep in many animals suggests distinct stages that serve different functions. Genetic sleep induction methods in animal models provide a powerful way to disambiguate these stages and functions, although behavioral methods alone are insufficient to accurately identify what kind of sleep is being engaged. In Drosophila, activation of the dorsal fan-shaped body (dFB) promotes sleep, but it remains unclear what kind of sleep this is, how the rest of the fly brain is behaving, or if any specific sleep functions are being achieved. This study developed a method to record calcium activity from thousands of neurons across a volume of the fly brain during spontaneous sleep and compared this to dFB-induced sleep. Spontaneous sleep was found to typically transition from an active "wake-like" stage to a less active stage. In contrast, optogenetic activation of the dFB promotes sustained wake-like levels of neural activity even though flies become unresponsive to mechanical stimuli. When flies were probed with salient visual stimuli, it was found that the activity of visually responsive neurons in the central brain was blocked by transient dFB activation, confirming an acute disconnect from the external environment. Prolonged optogenetic dFB activation nevertheless achieved a key sleep function by correcting visual attention defects brought on by sleep deprivation. These results suggest that dFB activation promotes a distinct form of sleep in Drosophila, where brain activity appears similar to wakefulness, but responsiveness to external sensory stimuli is profoundly suppressed (Tainton-Heap, 2020).

Importantly, this study has provided for the first time a cellular and molecular mechanism for for dopaminergic control of sleep through modulation of an associative network. While dopaminergic projections to cerebral cortex are known to be important for regulating sleep and arousal in mammals, underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood, although D2 subtype dopamine receptors have been implicated in the control of REM sleep. Because of the possible evolutionary relationship between the MB and vertebrate forebrain associative networks (such as mammalian cerebral cortex), these studies thus provide a framework for the design of analogous experiments in genetically tractable vertebrate model systems such as zebrafish and mice (Sitaraman, 2015b)

A limited number of other fly brain regions have been proposed to contribute to fly sleep. Manipulations of a broad set of peptidergic (PHM⁺) cells indicate that peptidergic neurons other than PDF neurons are wake promoting. An attractive hypothesis is that some these other peptidergic cells reside in the pars intercerebralis, a group of neurohumoral cells shown to an important sleep output center. The targets of these cells may even overlap with the targets of LNvs, e.g. the ellipsoid bodies. The PDFR is a class II G-protein coupled receptor and is fairly promiscuous: PDF is the highest affinity ligand, but this receptor is also activated by DH₃₁ and PACAP-38. Since peptidergic modulation may occur by 'volume' transmission instead of by direct synaptic contact, both LNv peptides and peptides from the pars could together affect this motor center to regulate sleep and activity. The role of the pars may be to inform the sleep generation machinery about nutritional and metabolic state, i.e., animals undergoing starvation exhibit hyperlocomotor activity that is believed to be evolutionarily useful as a method for finding food, and alteration of this pars-generated locomotor program affects sleep. The role of l-LNvs is clearly different from that of other PHM+ neurons, and their unique involvement in homeostatic sleep suggests they are central to sleep control (Parisky, 2008).

The only other brain region that has been implicated in Drosophila sleep regulation is the paired structure known as the mushroom bodies. These studies showed that GAL4-driven manipulation of signaling or of neurotransmitter release in this neuropil had complex effects on sleep, not inconsistent with a modulatory role for this sensory integration center. The exact mechanism of these effects is not clear, however, especially since all of the mushroom body GAL4 lines that were examined in this study also express in multiple subsets of clock cells (Parisky, 2008).

The small circuit this study describes presents a tractable model system for understanding the circuit-level control of sleep, the relationship between homeostatic and circadian control as well as the dynamics of sleep-wake transitions; the latter are critical to an understanding of episodic and age-related insomnia (Parisky, 2008).

Since the L1 and L2 monopolar cells swell in the morning and in the evening, ITP released from the 5^th s-LN_v may drive the evening peak of this rhythm. This is thought to be so, because the 5^th s-LN_v and LN_d are regarded as the lateral neurons' evening oscillator. In turn, PDF may drive the morning peak because PDF is thought to control the morning peak of locomotor activity, in a LD 12:12 regime. However, PDF's role in promoting locomotor activity in the evening has also been shown. The role of ITP as a neurotransmitter of circadian information to the lamina and as a possible regulator of rhythmic swelling and shrinking of the L1 and L2 monopolar cells, requires more experimentation and will be the subject of the next study (Damulewicz, 2011).

The functions of sleep remain elusive, but a strong link exists between sleep need and neuronal plasticity. This study tested the hypothesis that plastic processes during wake lead to a net increase in synaptic strength and sleep is necessary for synaptic renormalization. In three Drosophila neuronal circuits it was found that synapse size or number increases after a few hours of wake and decreases only if flies are allowed to sleep. A richer wake experience resulted in both larger synaptic growth and greater sleep need. Finally, it was demonstrated that the gene Fmr1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) plays an important role in sleep-dependent synaptic renormalization (Bushey, 2011).

Sleep is present in every species that has been carefully studied, including Drosophila, but its functions remain elusive. Increasing evidence points to a link between sleep need and neuronal plasticity. A recent hypothesis suggests that a consequence of staying awake is a progressive increase in synaptic strength, as the awake brain learns and adapts to an ever-changing environment mostly through synaptic potentiation. However, such increase would soon become unsustainable, because stronger synapses consume more energy, occupy more space, require more supplies, and cannot be further potentiated, saturating the ability to learn. Thus, according to the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, sleep may serve an essential function by promoting a homeostatic reduction in synaptic strength down to sustainable levels. Also, the hypothesis predicts that the more one learns and adapts (i.e., the more intense is the wake experience), the more one needs to sleep. Findings in rodents are consistent with this hypothesis. For instance, molecular and electrophysiological markers of synaptic strength are higher after wake and lower after sleep. Moreover, presynaptic terminals of hypocretin neurons in zebrafish larvae undergo both circadian and sleep-wake-dependent structural changes, the latter consistent with sleep-dependent down-regulation. Finally, in the fly brain, overall levels of synaptic proteins increase after wake and decrease after sleep (Gilestro, 2009), and synaptic structural changes have been described after very long sleep deprivation (Donlea, 2009). These results suggest that a role for sleep in synaptic homeostasis may hold in phylogenetically distant species and may thus be of general importance (Bushey, 2011).

The evidence in support of the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis is mainly correlative, and thus it is important to seek direct proof that sleep is necessary for synaptic renormalization and to do so at the level of individual synapses. Moreover, the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis predicts that behavioral paradigms that enhance wake-related plasticity in specific neural circuits should increase synaptic strength in those circuits as well as sleep need, but this prediction has never been tested. Finally, the cellular mechanisms that underlie synaptic and sleep changes remain unexplored. This study exploited the power of Drosophila genetics, combined with confocal microscopy and behavioral analysis, to address these questions (Bushey, 2011).

Changes in synaptic strength are often associated with changes in synaptic structure, including synapse number and size, although the link between structural and functional plasticity is complex. In mammals, the diameter and length of synaptic spines correlate with the size of the postsynaptic density and with the magnitude of electric signals transmitted to the dendritic shaft. Moreover, the induction of synaptic potentiation leads to growth of synapses and spines, whereas synaptic depression causes synapses and spines to retract or shrink. Similarly, in Drosophila, synaptic morphology at the neuromuscular junction changes depending on experience, and these changes correlate with synaptic strength. Previous in vivo experiments in mammals and flies measured overall changes in electrophysiological and molecular markers of synaptic strength, without cellular resolution, and without direct evidence for morphological changes in synaptic terminals. Three specific cell populations in the fly brain were selected, and it was asked whether sleep and wake affect synaptic density and size (Bushey, 2011).

The first cell group studied included the small ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), a subset of circadian oscillator neurons that are part of the wake promoting system and express the neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor (PDF). To visualize changes in presynaptic morphology, a fusion protein between synaptotagmin and enhanced GFP (syt-eGFP) was expressed, whose protein product colocalizes with native synaptic vesicles. PDF expression was also measured, because the latter is another marker of presynaptic boutons in small LNvs. First, adult females (7 days old) collected either during the light period were tested after 7 hours of mainly (>75%) spontaneous wake or during the dark period after 7 hours of mostly sleep (>80%) or sleep deprivation (>90%). Syt-eGFP and PDF staining were both higher in the presynaptic region of sleep-deprived and spontaneously awake flies relative to sleeping flies, whereas no differences were found in the axonal processes extending from the cell bodies to the presynaptic region, suggesting that the changes are independent of circadian time and specific to the presynaptic terminal. Males were then tested because they have less consolidated wake during the day than females. Flies were only tested at night, after sleep or sleep deprivation. Sleep-deprived 3- and 7-day-old males consistently showed higher presynaptic syt-eGFP and PDF staining than sleeping flies. In contrast, 1-day-old flies showed low syt-eGFP and PDF staining after both sleep and sleep deprivation. The lack of PDF staining in very young flies suggests that these neurons are still inactive soon after eclosure. Moreover, because PDF promotes arousal, low PDF staining is consistent with flies being predominantly asleep after eclosure, even if mechanical stimulation was used to try to keep them awake, consistent with high sleep need and elevated arousal threshold in newborn mammals. Syt-eGFP staining did not change in newly eclosed flies, whose PDF levels were very low. Syt-eGFP and PDF expression were also measured in Per⁰¹ flies carrying a null mutation of the clock gene Period. Because Per⁰¹ mutants have no spontaneous consolidated sleep, flies were collected immediately after 7 hours of sleep deprivation or after 5 additional hours of either recovery sleep or sleep deprivation. Overall, syt-eGFP and PDF staining in presynaptic terminals was reduced in Per⁰¹ mutants relative to wild-type (WT) flies but was still high after both 7 and 12 hours of sleep deprivation and low after recovery sleep (Bushey, 2011).

The second cell group analyzed included γ neurons of the mushroom bodies, because they can be targeted by mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) to visualize single cells, show a relatively simple morphology, and undergo activity-dependent pruning. Moreover, the mushroom bodies are involved in sleep regulation, and mutations altering cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase signaling or Fmr1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) expression in these brain regions affect both sleep need and experience-dependent structural plasticity . Flies were collected at night after 7 hours of sleep or sleep deprivation, and dissected brains were immunostained for GFP-tagged CD8 to visualize neuronal membranes. It was found that the axonal tips were larger after sleep deprivation than after sleep, consistent with an increase in volume of presynaptic terminals. To confirm this result, fly stocks were generated with γ MARCM clones expressing syt-eGFP, and flies were collected after 7 hours of mostly spontaneous wake, or during the dark period after 7 hours of mostly sleep or sleep deprivation. As expected, syt-eGFP tended to accumulate in puncta along lightly stained processes, in contrast to the diffuse CD8-GFP staining. Syt-eGFP puncta were larger in sleep deprived and spontaneously awake flies relative to sleeping flies (Bushey, 2011).

Next, whether postsynaptic morphological changes also occur as a function of sleep and wake was tested. To do so, focus was placed on the first giant tangential neuron of the lobula plate vertical system (VS). This cell (VS1) is unambiguously recognizable, and its stereotyped dendritic tree shows small actin-enriched protrusions morphologically and functionally similar to mammalian dendritic spines. Flies were compared that were spontaneously awake during the day or that slept or were sleep deprived during the first 7 hours of the night. Single VS1 spines were visualized using an antibody against actin-GFP and counted in one easily identifiable branch. The total number of spines was similar in spontaneously awake and sleeping flies but increased after sleep deprivation relative to both conditions, mainly because of an increase in stubby spines (which were the majority of scored spines). The number of mushroom spines did not change. The increase in spine number after sleep loss was associated with increased branching and lengthening of the dendritic tree, whereas spine density (number of spines divided by branch length) was similar in all conditions. Because sleep-deprived female flies had been mostly awake during the previous light period, this suggests that these postsynaptic changes may need sustained periods of wake. Another possibility, not mutually exclusive, is that changes in VS1 spines require a wake condition richer than that experienced by flies spontaneously awake alone inside small glass tubes. Indeed, sleep-deprived flies were kept awake using vibratory stimuli, resulting in the flies often falling from the top to the bottom of the tubes. Because visually driven responses in VS neurons are stronger during flight than during nonflight, it is possible that these cells were activated by the fall (Bushey, 2011).

To test whether a rich wake experience that engages the VS circuit is sufficient to affect VS1 synaptic morphology, up to 100 flies were housed inside a large lighted chamber ('fly mall') for an entire light period (12 hours). In the mall, flies could fly ad libitum, explore, and interact with each other. Flies were collected immediately after the mall experience and compared with flies that, as usual, had remained awake during the day in single tubes. The enriched experience in the mall had profound morphological effects on the VS1 dendritic tree: Total branch length increased because of the addition of more branches with spines (mainly stubby), resulting in an overall increase in spine number (Bushey, 2011).

Once experience-dependent synaptic changes have occurred, are they stable? If not, is sleep necessary to bring synaptic morphology back to pre-enrichment levels? To answer these questions, two other groups of flies were moved back to single tubes after 12 hours of mall experience; one group was allowed to sleep for 7 hours, whereas the other was kept awake as before using mechanical stimuli. In flies that were sleep-deprived after enrichment, branch length, branch points, and spine number were at levels similar to those seen in flies collected immediately after enrichment. In contrast, in flies that were allowed to sleep after the mall experience, all morphological parameters reverted to the levels observed in awake flies kept in single tubes. Moreover, spine density was negatively correlated with the amount of sleep during the last 7 hours, as well as with the maximal duration of sleep bouts. In another experiment, flies were housed in the mall for 12 hours during the day and then moved back to single tubes to record their sleep. During the 24 hours after the enrichment, flies slept more, both during the day and at. Finally, in the last experiment, flies were housed in the mall for 12 hours during the day, moved back to single tubes and sleep deprived all night (12 hours), and then either collected immediately, allowed to sleep for 6 hours, or kept awake for 6 more hours. Consistent with the previous experiments, decreases in all morphological parameters were seen only in flies that could sleep, and spine density was negatively correlated with the amount of sleep during the last 6 hours, as well as with mean and maximal duration of sleep bouts (Bushey, 2011).

Previous experiments suggest that Fmr1 could mediate at least some of the effects of sleep/wake on synapses. Fmr1 protein product (FMRP) is present in dendritic spines, and loss of FMRP in flies is associated with overgrown dendritic trees, larger synaptic boutons, and defects in developmental and activity-dependent pruning. Notably, Fmr1 overexpression results in the opposite phenotype, with dendritic and axonal underbranching and loss of synapse differentiation. Moreover, Fmr1 expression is reduced by sensory deprivation in flies and increased by sensory stimulation and enrichment in mammals (Bushey, 2011).

It was recently shown that FMRP levels increase in the adult fly brain during wake relative to sleep, independent of time of day or light, suggesting that waking experience is sufficient to affect Fmr1 expression even after the end of development. It has also been shown that Fmr1 overexpression in either the whole brain or in the mushroom bodies is associated with an ~30% decrease in sleep duration, and it is hypothesized that this reduced need for sleep occurs because chronically high Fmr1 levels may allow synaptic pruning to occur at all times, independent of sleep. If so, Fmr1 overexpressing (OE) flies should fail to show increased spine density after prolonged wake. Thus Fmr1 was overexpressed specifically in the vertical and horizontal system of the lobula plate. OE flies were collected at night after 7 hours of either sleep or sleep deprivation and were compared to corresponding sleeping and sleep-deprived WT controls. As expected, Fmr1 expression was concentrated in granules along the VS1 dendritic tree, and overall Fmr1 levels were higher in sleeping and sleep-deprived OE flies than in their corresponding controls, due to larger Fmr1 granules in OE flies. Crucially, in contrast to WT controls, OE flies showed no increase in either spine number, branch length, or branch points after sleep deprivation relative to sleep; all these parameters were similar between the two experimental groups, and their levels were close to those observed in WT flies after sleep. Finally, OE flies slept less than their WT controls during baseline and showed a reduced sleep rebound after 12 hours of sleep deprivation at night. Thus, it seems that Fmr1 overexpression was sufficient to completely abolish the wake-dependent increase in VS1 spine number, whereas the effects on sleep were small. The latter result is not surprising, because sleep need presumably results from the overall amount of synaptic plasticity occurring during wake in many brain areas, whereas Fmr1 overexpression was restricted to a few VS neurons (Bushey, 2011).

Sleep is perhaps the only major behavior still in search of a function. The results of this study support the hypothesis that plastic processes during wake lead to a net increase in synaptic strength in many brain circuits and that sleep is required for synaptic renormalization. A wake-related increase in synapse number and strength, if unopposed, would lead to a progressive increase in energy expenditure and saturation of learning. A sleep-dependent synaptic homeostasis may explain why sleep is required to maintain cognitive performance. How sleep would bring about a net decrease in synaptic strength remains unknown, but in mammals, potential mechanisms favoring synaptic depression during non-rapid eye movement sleep may require the repeated sequences of depolarization/synchronous firing and hyperpolarization/silence at ~1Hz observed in corticothalamic cells, as well as the low levels of neuromodulators such as noradrenaline and of plasticity-related molecules such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor. To what extent such mechanisms may also apply to flies remains to be determined (Bushey, 2011).

Tetrad synapses are formed between the retina photoreceptor terminals and postsynaptic cells in the first optic neuropil (lamina) of Drosophila. They are remodelled in the course of the day and show distinct functional changes during activity and sleep. These changes result from fast degradation of the presynaptic scaffolding protein Bruchpilot (BRP) by Cryptochrome (CRY) in the morning and depend on BRP-170, one of two BRP isoforms. This process also affects the number of synaptic vesicles, both clear and dense-core, delivered to the presynaptic elements. In cry⁰¹ mutants lacking CRY and in brp^Δ170, the number of synaptic vesicles is lower in the morning peak of activity than during night-sleep while in wild-type flies the number of synaptic vesicles is similar at these two time points. CRY may also set phase of the circadian rhythm in plasticity of synapses. The process of synapse remodelling stimulates the formation of clear synaptic vesicles in the morning. They carry histamine, a neurotransmitter in tetrad synapses and seem to be formed from glial capitate projections inside the photoreceptor terminals. In turn dense-core vesicles probably carry synaptic proteins building the tetrad presynaptic element (Damulewicz, 2020).

The results confirmed earlier studies that the presynaptic element (T-bar) of tetrad synapses is remodelled during the day and night and this rhythm is regulated by light and circadian clock (Gorska-Andrzejak, 2013; Woznicka, 2015). In the present study, it was found additionally that cyclic changes occur in the T-bar ultrastructure and its volume. Ultrastructural changes in T-bars and synaptic vesicles were possible because of using high resolution electron microscope tomography (EMT). In the present study it was also found that the number of synaptic vesicles cycles during the day, but this rhythm is masked by light. This result indicates that in the case of tetrad synapses, which are sites of fast neurotransmission between photoreceptors and the first order interneurons, intense neurotransmission occurs during the morning peak of locomotor activity, when more synaptic vesicles are attached to the T-bar platform than during sleep (ZT16) and are transported from capitate projections located next to the T-bars. At ZT16, tetrad synapses are ready for neurotransmission, since the total number of synaptic vesicles near tetrad synapses is similar at ZT1 and ZT16, but it is in a standby mode with lower frequency of synapses and vesicles, which are not attached to the T-bar platform and are not delivered from glial cells, respectively. However, transmission can be activated and is efficient because synapses during sleep have larger volume, and synaptic vesicles can be transported to the T-bar platform, if necessary, in response to an unexpected light pulse. Cyclic remodelling of tetrad presynaptic sites depends on BRP, which must be delivered to T-bars and degraded after light exposure after binding to CRY. This fast remodelling of synapses affects the number of vesicles transported to the presynaptic element (Damulewicz, 2020).

The present study was carried out only in light/dark (LD 12:12) conditions because in earlier studies it was found that the rhythm of the changes in BRP abundance in tetrad synapses of D. melanogaster is circadian. The rhythm is maintained in constant darkness (DD) and abolished in the per⁰¹ clock null mutant. On the basis of these results, it is assumed that rhythmic changes during the 24 h cycle reported is this paper are also circadian; however, in DD, the morning peak in BRP is not present because it depends on light (Damulewicz, 2020).

Electron microscope tomography (EMT) used in this study showed that synaptic vesicles are attached to the platform of the T-bar with filamentous proteins that are reduced in brp^Δ170 and brp^Δ190 mutants, which have fewer synaptic vesicles compared with wild-type flies. Two types of vesicles, clear and dense-core were detected. Dense-core synaptic vesicles were less numerous than clear ones. It is known that synaptic vesicles of tetrad synapses contain histamine, while the content of dense-core vesicles is unknown. It is possible that they carry presynaptic proteins to the T-bar. The comparison of ultrastructure of tetrad synapses in the morning peak of activity (ZT1) and during sleep (ZT16) indicates that more vesicles are attached to the T-bar platform and to capitate projections at ZT1, but this pattern is not present in brpΔ170, brp^Δ190 and cry⁰¹ . This result confirmed an earlier study that both high motor activity in the morning and light exposure increase activity of the visual system. In the morning, there is intense transport of synaptic vesicles to T-bars and delivery of histamine in clear vesicles from the epithelial glial cells through capitate projections. The evidence for a role of capitate projections in neurotransmitter recycling has already been reported and now this study showed, using EMT, that vesicles are produced from capitate projections and directly delivered to T-bars. This intense transport is damaged in all mutants studied, suggesting that both BRP isoforms and CRY are needed for this process. In addition, in the brp^Δ190 mutant lacking BRP-190, the T-bar structure is less dense than in the other strains studied. In a previous study, it was found that there are approximately 50% fewer synapses in brp^Δ190 than in Canton S and brp^Δ170. Another study reported that BRP isoforms are important for the formation of T-bars in neuromuscular junctions, and in brp mutants T-bars are smaller than in controls. T-bar height was reduced in brp^Δ190, whereas the widths of pedestal and platform were reduced in both mutants. They also decrease transmission since the active zone was smaller in both mutants and the number of synaptic vesicles was reduced. These ultrastructural changes are correlated with cell physiology since the amplitude of evoked excitatory junctional current was decreased in both mutants with a stronger effect in brp^Δ190 (Damulewicz, 2020).

The obtained reconstructions of tetrad T-bars from TEM serial sections of the lamina showed that although there were fewer synapses during the night (ZT16), the volume of the T-bar was larger at that time than in the morning (ZT1), while the total number of synaptic vesicles was similar. In contrast, a day/night difference (ZT1 vs. ZT16) in the number of vesicles was observed in brp^Δ170 and cry⁰¹ . This suggests that the CRY protein and BRP-170 are responsible for an increase in the number of synaptic vesicles during the morning peak of activity. Since CRY co-localizes with BRP and is involved in BRP degradation in the morning, CRY is probably also involved in the degradation of other proteins of synaptic vesicle organization in the morning since the number of vesicles in cry⁰¹ was low in the morning but high at night (ZT16). It seems that in cry⁰¹, synaptic vesicles are not delivered to the photoreceptor terminals from capitate projections and tethered to the cytomatrix in the morning. It is also interesting that the daily rhythm in the number of vesicles is not maintained in BRP mutants, which confirms an earlier study, and the BRP N-terminus, which lacks brp^Δ190, is necessary to maintain daily remodelling of the T-bar structure. Although both isoforms participate in building the cytomatrix their functions seem to be different in the course of the day. It is also possible that CRY is not only responsible for degradation of synaptic proteins but also as a protein, what is known, affecting the clock. In another cell types, in clock neurons l-LNvs, CRY, except interaction with TIM, is responsible for blue light response and firing of the l-LNvs. In the lamina it was found that in cry⁰¹ mutant the daily rhythm in synapse number and their remodelling was delayed in phase and the day/night difference in Canton S increased when peaks in the number of synapses were shift to ZT4 and ZT16. In result the difference between ZT1 and ZT16 was increased in cry⁰¹ (Damulewicz, 2020).

BRP is also responsible for rapid remodelling of the presynaptic active zone (AZ), and as reported in Drosophila NMJ, presynaptic homeostatic potentiation increases the number of BRP molecules and other AZ proteins, Unc13A and RBP, within minutes (Damulewicz, 2020).

When synaptic vesicles were counted at two different distances from the T-bar, to 200 nm and above 200 nm, there were differences between clear vesicles containing histamine and dense-core ones located in both areas. More clear vesicles were located near the T-bar and fewer above 200 nm. In the case of dense-core vesicles, their number was similar in both areas. This difference was not so striking in mutants in the case of vesicles located next to the platform, but in brp^Δ170 and cry⁰¹, there were more dense-core vesicles at ZT16 in the distance above 200 nm than closer to the T-bar. This result indicates that BRP-170 and CRY are important for the distribution of clear synaptic vesicles next to the T-bar as well as dense-core vesicles located above 200 nm from the presynaptic element. It is possible that dense-core vesicles contain T-bar proteins, probably BRP. When transport along the actin cytoskeleton is disrupted, the number of tetrad synapses decreases, and rapid AZ remodelling also fails (Damulewicz, 2020).

The above mentioned ultrastructural changes depend on the level of the presynaptic scaffolding protein BRP, which changes in abundance during the day and night. These changes are controlled by the daily expression of CRY, which seems to have many functions in photoreceptors in addition to being the circadian clock photoreceptor. In an earlier study, it was found that CRY interacts with BRP but only during light exposure and leads to the degradation of BRP during the day/light phase of the 24 h cycle. This seems to be responsible for the decrease in BRP level in the middle of the day after its peak at the beginning of the day. The lack of CRY in cry⁰¹ mutants changes the pattern of the tetrad presynaptic profile frequency during the day and the size of the T-bar. However, the rhythm is not completely abolished, which indicates that other proteins are also involved in the daily remodelling of tetrad synapses. Since CRY plays several functions in photoreceptors, changes in the number of tetrad synapse and T-bar size in cry⁰¹ may result from different processes and lack of interactions of CRY with TIM and BRP. CRY is a component of the molecular clock and interacts with TIM, and this may affect daily changes in the number and size of T-bars. In addition, light-activated CRY binds BRP and targets it to degradation. Previous work showed that flies with constitutively active CRY have low BRP level. In turn, cry⁰¹ mutants show changes in the pattern of BRP expression, with higher BRP level during the day (ZT4), at the time when wild-type flies have minimum of BRP expression. The pattern of BRP expression is similar to the pattern of daily changes in tetrad synapse number, so it is possible that the number of synapses or T-bar size is directly dependent on the amount of BRP which oscillates during the day. However, CRY in the retina photoreceptors binds also actin and is involved in the organization of phototransduction cascade of proteins in rhabdomeres38. This may be also involved in the regulation of T-bar structure. The differences in T-bar size of cry⁰¹ are shown at time when in Canton S CRY is active (during the day) or its level increases (ZT16). At the beginning of the night the level of CRY is very low, so there was no effect on T-bar structure and no difference between CS and cry⁰¹ was observed (Damulewicz, 2020).

The epithelial glial cells are important for many processes during phototransduction and in recycling neurotransmitters and other compounds during the night. Glia take up histamine and metabolize it to carcinin, which is next delivered to the photoreceptor terminals, and capitate projections are involved in this process. Activity of glial cells is also controlled by the circadian clock. During the night, glial cells seem to be more active than neurons to recycle neurotransmitters, and many proteins, including proteins of ion pumps, are found at higher concentrations at that time. The high number of synaptic vesicles near the tetrad T-bar during the morning peak of activity in Drosophila seems to depend on capitate projections invaginating from the epithelial glia to the photoreceptor terminals in the lamina of Drosophila (Damulewicz, 2020).

Although the presynaptic cytomatrix can be rapidly remodelled with transmission strength, it is also affected by motor and visual system activity, external factors, such as light in the case of the visual system, and the circadian clock, showing plasticity and correlation to changes in behaviour during the day/night cycle. As was shown in the present study synaptic plasticity and synapse remodelling during the day is a complex process which involves presynaptic proteins of the T-bar as well as two types of synaptic vesicles, clear and dense-core, and glial cells. It was also found that fast degradation of proteins involved in transmission is as important as pre- and postsynaptic protein synthesis (Damulewicz, 2020).

Through the use of whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology techniques, this study has demonstrated synchronous membrane activity of lLN_vs of the circadian rest/arousal neural network of Drosophila arising from bilateral synchronized synaptic inputs. This synchronous membrane activity is mediated by cholinergic inputs to the lLN_vs themselves. However, GABAergic inputs modulate membrane activity of these neurons but are not required for synchrony. The role of glutamatergic signaling in synchronous membrane activity between lLN_v pairs remains to be revealed, as agents to pharmacologically inhibit GluCl are not currently available. Building on these findings, future studies are required to elucidate the overlapping neural circuitry of the circadian, rest/arousal, and light input systems, and will discern how these systems are integrated and finely coordinated to generate a robust and complex pattern of behavior (McCarthy, 2011).

In further support of this suggestion, in mammals, dopamine D1 receptors in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) have been proposed to negatively regulate activity, while D1 receptors in the nucleus accumbens are thought to promote sleep-wake transitions. Numerous studies have linked dopaminergic dysfunction in the PFC to ADHD. While most research has focused on the role of the PFC in attention and cognition, rather than in environmentally stimulated arousal per se, dysfunction of PFC circuits mediating phasic DA release has been invoked to explain behavioral hypersensitivity to environmental stimuli in ADHD (Sikstrom, 2007). This view of ADHD as a disorder of circuits mediating environmentally stimulated arousal suggests that further study of such circuits in humans and in vertebrate animal models, as well as in Drosophila, may improve understanding of this disorder and ultimately lead to improved therapeutics (Lebestky, 2009).

An understanding of sleep requires the identification of distinct cellular circuits that mediate the action of specific sleep:wake-regulating molecules, but such analysis has been very limited. This study identifies a circuit that underlies the wake-promoting effects of octopamine in Drosophila. Using MARCM, the ASM cells in the medial protocerebrum were identified as the wake-promoting octopaminergic cells. Octopamine signaling was then blocked in random areas of the fly brain, and the postsynaptic effect was mapped to insulin-secreting neurons of the pars intercerebralis (PI). These PI neurons show altered potassium channel function as well as an increase in cAMP in response to octopamine, and genetic manipulation of their electrical excitability alters sleep:wake behavior. Effects of octopamine on sleep:wake are mediated by the cAMP-dependent isoform of the OAMB receptor. These studies define the cellular and molecular basis of octopamine action and suggest that the PI is a sleep:wake-regulating neuroendocrine structure like the mammalian hypothalamus (Crocker, 2010).

This work adds to the growing network view of circadian rhythms in Drosophila where LN_vs integrate information to set period for the rest of the clock network in DD. The period-altering effects of decreased G-protein signaling in LN_vs point to a less hierarchical and more distributed network than previously envisioned. Since the data strongly suggests that GABA inputs are novel regulators of 24hr rhythms, the GABAergic neurons that fine-tune the s-LN_v clock should be considered part of the circadian network (Dahdal, 2010).

GABAergic signalling is important for normal sleep in humans and flies. This study has advance the current understanding of GABAergic modulation of daily sleep patterns by focusing on the role of slow metabotropic GABAB receptors in Drosophila. It was asked whether GABAB-R2 receptors are regulatory elements in sleep regulation in addition to the already identified fast ionotropic Rdl GABA_A receptors. By immunocytochemical and reporter-based techniques it was shown that the pigment dispersing factor (PDF)-positive ventrolateral clock neurons (LN_v) express GABAB-R2 receptors. Downregulation of GABAB-R2 receptors in the large PDF neurons (l-LNv) by RNAi reduced sleep maintenance in the second half of the night, whereas sleep latency at the beginning of the night that was previously shown to depend on ionotropic Rdl GABAA receptors remained unaltered. The results confirm the role of the l-LNv neurons as an important part of the sleep circuit in D. melanogaster and also identify the GABAB-R2 receptors as the thus far missing component in GABA-signalling that is essential for sleep maintenance. Despite the significant effects on sleep, no changes were observed changes in circadian behaviour in flies with downregulated GABAB-R2 receptors, indicating that the regulation of sleep maintenance via l-LNv neurons is independent of their function in the circadian clock circuit (Gmeiner, 2013).

The fruit fly has become a well-accepted model for sleep research. As in mammals, it has been shown that the sleep-like state of Drosophila is associated with reduced sensory responsiveness and reduced brain activity, and is subject to both circadian and homeostatic regulation. Similarly to in humans, monaminergic neurons (specifically dopaminergic and octopaminergic neurons) enhance arousal in fruit flies, whereas GABAergic neurons promote sleep (Agosto, 2008). As in humans, GABA advances sleep onset (reduces sleep latency) and prolongs total sleep (increases sleep maintenance). Brain regions possibly implicated in the regulation of sleep in D. melanogaster are the pars intercerebralis, the mushroom bodies and a subgroup of the pigment dispersing factor (PDF)-positive neurons called the l-LN_v neurons. The l-LN_v belong to the circadian clock neurons, indicating that in flies, as in mammals, the sleep circuit is intimately linked to the circadian clock and that the mechanisms employed to govern sleep in the brain are evolutionarily ancient (Gmeiner, 2013).

The l-LN_v are conspicuous clock neurons with wide arborisations in the optic lobe, fibres in the accessory medulla -- the insect clock centre -- and connections between the brain hemispheres. Thus, the l-LN_v neurons are anatomically well suited to modulate the activity of many neurons. In addition, their arborisations overlap with those of monaminergic neurons. Several studies show that they indeed receive dopaminergic, octopaminergic and GABAergic input and that they control the flies' arousal and sleep. Furthermore, the l-LN_v are directly light sensitive and promote arousal and activity in response to light, especially in the morning (Gmeiner, 2013).

A part of the sleep-promoting effect of GABA on the l-LN_v has been shown to be mediated via the fast ionotropic GABA_A receptor Rdl (Resistance to dieldrin) (Agosto, 2008). Rdl Cl^- channels are expressed in the l-LN_v (Agosto, 2008) and, similar to mammalian GABA_A receptors, they mediate fast inhibitory neurotransmission. As expected, GABA application reduced the action potential firing rate in the l-LN_v, whereas application of picrotoxin, a GABA_A receptor antagonist, increased it (McCarthy, 2011). Furthermore, an Rdl receptor mutant with prolonged channel opening and consequently increased channel current significantly decreased sleep latency of the flies after lights-off, whereas the downregulation of the Rdl receptor via RNAi increased it (Agosto, 2008; Gmeiner, 2013 and references therein).

Nevertheless, the manipulation of the Rdl receptor had no effect on sleep maintenance. Because the latter is significantly reduced after silencing the GABAergic neurons (Parisky, 2008), other GABA receptors must be responsible for maintaining sleep. Suitable candidates are slow metabotropic GABA_B receptors that are often co-localised with ionotropic GABA_A receptors (Enell, 2007). In Drosophila, like in mammals, the metabotropic GABA_B receptors are G-protein-coupled seven-transmembrane proteins composed of two subunits, GABA_B-R1 and GABA_B-R2 (Kaupmann, 1998; Mezler, 2001). The GABA_B-R1 is the ligand binding unit and GABA_B-R2 is required for translocation to the cell membrane and for stronger coupling to the G-protein (Kaupmann, 1998; Galvez, 2001). This study shows that the l-LN_v do express metabotropic GABA_B-R2 receptors and that these receptors are relevant for sleep maintenance but not for sleep latency. Thus, metabotropic and ionotropic GABA receptors are cooperating in sleep regulation (Gmeiner, 2013).

This study shows that metabotropic GABAB-R2 receptors are expressed on the PDF-positive clock neurons (LNv neurons), and that their downregulation in the l-LNv by RNAi results in: (1) a higher activity level throughout the day and night and (2) reduced sleep maintenance in the second half of the night. Neither sleep onset nor circadian rhythm parameters were affected by the downregulation. It is concluded that GABA signalling via metabotropic receptors on the l-LNv is essential for sustaining sleep throughout the night and for keeping activity at moderate levels throughout the 24-h day (preventing flies from hyperactivity). A major caveat of RNAi is off-target effects, particularly when Gal4 drivers are expressed in large numbers of non-target neurons. Though GABAB-R2 was downregulated in only eight neurons per brain hemisphere and the behavioural effects of the knockdown experiments were carefully correlated with observation and measures of GABAB-R2 immunostaining in the s-LNv and l-LNv, it is still possible that some effects were due to off-target knockdown of other membrane proteins. Nevertheless, given the fact that no such effects have been reported in the previous paper that used the same GABAB-R2 RNAi line (Root, 2008), it is thought unlikely that the behavioural effects described in this study were due to off-target knockdown of other genes (Gmeiner, 2013).

The results are in line with a former study describing the location of GABAB receptors in D. melanogaster (Hamasaka, 2005). The ionotropic GABAA receptor Rdl has also been identified on the l-LNv neurons and has been shown to regulate sleep, but its downregulation delayed only sleep onset and did not perturb sleep maintenance (Parisky, 2008). In contrast, silencing GABAergic signalling influenced sleep onset and sleep maintenance, indicating that GABA works through the fast Rdl receptor, and also implying a longer-lasting signalling pathway. GABAB receptors are perfect candidates in mediating slow but longer-lasting effects of GABA. Often, GABAA and GABAB receptors cooperate in mediating such fast and slow effects. For example, in the olfactory system, GABAA receptors mediate the primary modulatory responses to odours whereas GABAB receptors are responsible for long-lasting effects (Wilson, 2005; Gmeiner, 2013 and references therein).

In D. melanogaster, GABAB receptors consist of the two subunits GABAB-R1 and GABAB-R2, and only the two units together can efficiently activate the metabotropic GABA signalling cascade (Galvez, 2001; Mezler, 2001). In the current experiments, only GABAB-R2 was downregulated, but this manipulation should also have decreased the amount of functional GABAB-R1/GABAB-R2 heterodimers and, therefore, reduced GABAB signalling in general. Taking into account that sleep maintenance in the second half of the night was already significantly impaired by an ~46% reduction in detectable GABAB-R2 immunostaining intensity in the l-LNv clock neurons, it can be assumed that GABAB receptors account for an even larger portion of the sleep maintenance than detected in these experiments. Thus GABAB receptors play a crucial role in mediating GABAergic signals to the l-LNv neurons, which are needed to sustain sleep throughout the night. This is mainly due to the maintenance of extended sleep bout durations in the second half of the night. When signalling by the GABAB receptor is reduced, sleep bouts during this interval are significantly shortened, leading to less total sleep (Gmeiner, 2013).

Most importantly, this study confirmed the l-LNv as important components in regulation of sleep and arousal (Agosto, 2008; Parisky, 2008; Kula-Eversole, 2010; Shang, 2011). In contrast, the s-LNv seem to be not involved in sleep-€“arousal regulation but are rather important for maintaining circadian rhythmicity under DD (reviewed by Helfrich-Förster, 2007). One caveat in clearly distinguishing the function of s-LNv and l-LNv is the fact that both cell clusters express the neuropeptide PDF and, as a consequence, Pdf-GAL4 drives expression in both subsets of clock neurons. Though no significant GABAB-R2 knock-down in the s-LNv is seen, it cannot be completely excluded that GABAB-R2 was slightly downregulated in these clock neurons and that this knock-down contributes to the observed alterations in sleep. To restrict the knock-down to the s-LNv the R6-GAL4 line was used that is expressed in the s-LNv but not in the l-LNv. Neither a reduction in GABAB-R2 staining intensity in the s-LNv nor any effects on sleep in the second half of the night was seen. The lack of any visible GABAB-R2 downregulation in the s-LNv with R6-GAL4 is in agreement with observations of Shafer and Taghert (Shafer, 2009), who could completely downregulate PDF in the s-LNv using Pdf-GAL4 but not using R6-GAL4. Thus, R6-GAL4 is a weaker driver than Pdf-GAL4 and is obviously not able to influence GABAB-R2 in the s-LNv. Nevertheless, in the current experiments the R6-Gal4-driven GABAB-R2 RNAi led to flies that had slightly higher diurnal activity levels and less diurnal rest than the control flies. This suggests that GABAB-R2 was downregulated somewhere else. When checking the R6-GAL4 expression more carefully it was found that R6-GAL4 was not restricted to the brain, but was also present in many cells of the thoracic and especially the abdominal ganglia. Given the broad expression of GABAB-R2, a putative knock-down in the ventral nervous system is likely to affect locomotor activity (Gmeiner, 2013).

The results on the l-LNv certainly do not exclude a role of GABA in the circadian clock controlling activity rhythms under DD conditions (here represented by the s-LNv). In mammals, GABA is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the circadian clock centre in the brain -- the suprachiasmatic nucleus. GABA interacts with GABAA and GABAB receptors, producing primarily but not exclusively inhibitory responses through membrane hyperpolarisation. GABA signalling is important for maintaining behavioural circadian rhythmicity, it affects the amplitude of molecular oscillations and might contribute to synchronisation of clock cells within the suprachiasmatic nucleus. The same seems to be true for fruit flies. The s-LNv neurons of adults alter cAMP levels upon GABA application on isolated brains in vitro (Lelito, 2012). Hyperexcitation of GABAergic neurons disrupts the molecular rhythms in the s-LNv and renders the flies arrhythmic (Dahdal, 2010). Thus, GABA signalling affects the circadian clock in the s-LNv. Flies with downregulated GABAB-R2 receptors were found to have slightly longer free-running periods than the control flies, but this turned out to be only significant in comparison with Control 2 and not to Control 1. Dahdal (2010) found similar small effects on period after downregulating GABAB-R2 receptors, but a significant period lengthening after downregulating GABAB-R3 receptors. This indicates that GABA signals via GABAB-R3 receptors to the s-LNv and was confirmed in vitro in the larval Drosophila brain by Ca2+ imaging (Dahdal, 2010). Nevertheless, the study of Dahdal does not rule out that GABA signals via GABAB-R3 plus GABAB-R2 receptors on the adult s-LNv. This study found a rather strong expression of GABAB-R2 receptors in these clock neurons, and were not able to downregulate it significantly by RNAi, although dicer2 was used as amplification. Dahdal did not use dicer2, and they also did not measure the effectiveness of the downregulation of GABAB-R2 by RNAi immunocytochemically directly in the s-LNv. Thus, the exact GABAB receptors that mediate GABA responses in the adult s-LNv need still to be determined (Gmeiner, 2013).

In summary, it is concluded that the l-LNv subgroup of the PDF-positive clock neurons is a principal target of sleep-promoting and activity-repressing GABAergic neurons and sits at the heart of the sleep circuit in D. melanogaster. Thus, the sleep circuitry of flies is clearly more circumscribed and simpler than that of mammals. Mammals have many targets of sleep-promoting GABAergic neurons, and the circadian clock seems to have a mainly modulatory and less direct influence on sleep (Mistlberger, 2005). The fly sleep circuitry may therefore have condensed the mammalian arousal and sleep stimulating systems (e.g., monaminergic, cholinergic, peptidergic and GABAergic systems) into a simpler and more compact region, which seems to largely coincide with the eight PDF-positive l-LNv cells of the circadian circuit (Gmeiner, 2013).

Emerging evidence indicates the role of amino acid metabolism in sleep regulation. This study demonstrates sleep-promoting effects of dietary threonine (SPET) in Drosophila. Dietary threonine markedly increased daily sleep amount and decreased the latency to sleep onset in a dose-dependent manner. High levels of synaptic GABA or pharmacological activation of metabotropic GABA receptors (GABAB-R) suppressed SPET. By contrast, synaptic blockade of GABAergic neurons or transgenic depletion of GABAB-R in the ellipsoid body R2 neurons enhanced sleep drive non-additively with SPET. Dietary threonine reduced GABA levels, weakened metabotropic GABA responses in R2 neurons, and ameliorated memory deficits in plasticity mutants. Moreover, genetic elevation of neuronal threonine levels was sufficient for facilitating sleep onset. Taken together, these data define threonine as a physiologically relevant, sleep-promoting molecule that may intimately link neuronal metabolism of amino acids to GABAergic control of sleep drive via the neuronal substrate of sleep homeostasis (Ki, 2019).

The circadian clock and sleep homeostasis are two key regulators that shape daily sleep behaviors in animals. In stark contrast to the homeostatic nature of sleep, the internal machinery of sleep is vulnerable to external (e.g., environmental change) or internal conditions (e.g., genetic mutation) that lead to adaptive changes in sleep behaviors. Sleep behavior is conserved among mammals, insects, and even lower eukaryotes. Since the identification of the voltage-gated potassium channel Shaker as a sleep-regulatory gene in Drosophila, fruit flies have been one of the most advantageous genetic models to dissect molecular and neural components that are important for sleep homeostasis and plasticity (Ki, 2019).

To date, a number of sleep-regulatory genes and neurotransmitters have been identified in animal models as well as in humans. For instance, the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is known to have a sleep-promoting role that is conserved in invertebrates and vertebrates. Hypomorphic mutations in mitochondrial GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) elevate GABA levels and lengthen baseline sleep in flies (Chen, 2015). The long sleep phenotype in GABA-T mutants accompanies higher sleep consolidation and shorter latency to sleep onset, consistent with the observations that pharmacological enhancement of GABAergic transmission facilitates sleep in flies and mammals, including humans. In addition, resistance to dieldrin (Rdl), a Drosophila homolog of the ionotropic GABA receptor, suppresses wake-promoting circadian pacemaker neurons in adult flies to exert sleep-promoting effects. Similarly, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydroisoxazolo[5,4 c]pyridin-3-ol (THIP), an agonist of the ionotropic GABA receptor, promotes sleep in insects and mammals (Ki, 2019).

Many sleep medications modulate GABAergic transmission. A prominent side effect of anti-epileptic drugs relevant to GABA is causing drowsiness. Conversely, glycine supplements improve sleep quality in a way distinct from traditional hypnotic drugs, minimizing deleterious cognitive problems or addiction. In fact, glycine or D-serine acts as a co-agonist of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and promotes sleep through the sub-type of ionotropic glutamate receptors. Emerging evidence further supports the roles of amino acid transporters and metabolic enzymes in sleep regulation. In particular, it has been demonstrated that starvation induces the expression of metabolic enzymes for serine biosynthesis in Drosophila brains, and elevates free serine levels to suppress sleep via cholinergic signaling (Sonn, 2018). These observations prompted a hypothesis that other amino acids may also display neuro-modulatory effects on sleep behaviors (Ki, 2019).

The molecular and neural machinery of sleep regulation intimately interacts with external (e.g., light, temperature) and internal sleep cues (e.g., sleep pressure, metabolic state) to adjust the sleep architecture in animals. Using a Drosophila genetic model, this study has investigated whether dietary amino acids could affect sleep behaviors, through this investigation SPET was discovered. Previous studies have demonstrated that the wake-promoting circadian pacemaker neurons are crucial for timing sleep onset after lights-off in LD cycles. In addition, WAKE-dependent silencing of clock neurons and its collaborative function with RDL have been suggested as a key mechanism in the circadian control of sleep onset. However, the current evidence indicates that SPET facilitates sleep onset in a manner independent of circadian clocks. It was further elucidated that SPET operates likely via the down-regulation of metabotropic GABA transmission in R2 EB neurons, a neural locus for generating homeostatic sleep drive (Ki, 2019).

Both food availability and nutritional quality substantially affect sleep behaviors in Drosophila. Sucrose contents in food and their gustatory perception dominate over dietary protein to affect daily sleep. Starvation promotes arousal in a manner dependent on the circadian clock genes Clock and cycle as well as neuropeptide F (NPF), which is a fly ortholog of mammalian neuropeptide Y. On the other hand, protein is one of the nutrients that contribute to the postprandial sleep drive in Drosophila and this observation is possibly relevant to SPET. While Leucokinin (Lk) and Lk receptor (Lkr) play important roles in dietary protein-induced postprandial sleepand in starvation-induced arousal, comparable SPET was observed between hypomorphic mutants of Lk or Lkr and their heterozygous controls. Therefore, SPET and its neural basis reveal a sleep-regulatory mechanism distinct from those involved in sleep plasticity relevant to food intake (Ki, 2019).

What will be the molecular basis of SPET? Given the general implication of GABA in sleep promotion, a simple model will be that a molecular sensor expressed in a subset of GABAergic neurons (i.e., LN) directly responds to an increase in threonine levels, activates GABA transmission, and thereby induces sleep. Several lines of evidence, however, favored the other model that dietary threonine actually down-regulates metabotropic GABA transmission in R2 EB neurons, de-represses the neural locus for generating homeostatic sleep drive, and thereby enhances sleep drive. The latter model does not necessarily conflict with sleep-promoting effects of genetic or pharmacological conditions that generally elevate GABA levels or enhance GABAergic transmission since those effects will be the net outcome of activated GABA transmission via various sub-types of GABA receptors expressed in either wake- or sleep-promoting neurons and their (Ki, 2019).

The structural homology among threonine, GABA, and their metabolic derivatives (e.g., alpha-ketobutyrate and gamma-hydroxybutyrate) led to the hypothesis that these relevant chemicals may act as competitive substrates in enzymatic reactions for their overlapping metabolism. Consequently, dietary threonine may limit the total flux of GABA-glutamate-glutamine cycle possibly through substrate competition, decreases the size of available GABA pool, and thereby down-scales GABA transmission for SPET. This accounts for why genetic or pharmacological elevation of GABA levels rather suppresses SPET. Threonine, GABA, and their derivatives may also act as competitive ligands for metabotropic GABA receptors, explaining weak GABA responses in R2 EB neurons of threonine-fed flies. Biochemical and neural evidence supportive of this hypothesis is quite abundant. It has been previously shown that alpha-ketobutyrate, GABA, and the ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate act as competitive substrates in common enzymatic reactions. Moreover, functional interactions of beta-hydroxybutyrate or gamma-hydroxybutyrate with GABAergic signaling have been well documented. Finally, threonine and GABA derivatives have anti-convulsive effects, which further support their common structural and functional relevance to GABAergic signaling (Ki, 2019).

The removal of the amino group is the initial step for amino acid metabolism, and various transaminases mediate its transfer between amino acids and alpha-keto acids. On the other hand, a group of amino acids (i.e., glutamate, glycine, serine, and threonine) has their own deaminases that can selectively remove the amino group. The presence of these specific deaminases is indicative of active mechanisms that individually fine-tune the baseline levels of these amino acids in metabolism, and possibly in the context of other physiological processes as well. This idea is further supported by the conserved roles of glutamate, glycine, and serine as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators important for brain function, including sleep regulation. In fact, serine, glycine, and threonine constitute a common metabolic pathway, and threonine may contribute indirectly to glycine- or serine-dependent activation of sleep-promoting NMDAR. Nonetheless, this study found that sleep-modulatory effects of dietary glycine were distinct from SPET and thus, it is speculated that threonine may act as an independent neuromodulator, similar to other amino acids with their dedicated deaminases (Ki, 2019).

While several lines of the data support that threonine is likely to be an endogenous sleep driver in fed conditions, it wa recently demonstrated that starvation induces serine biosynthesis in the brain and neuronal serine subsequently suppresses sleep via cholinergic signaling (Sonn, 2018). These two pieces of relevant works establish a compelling model that the metabolic pathway of serine-glycine-threonine functions as a key sleep-regulatory module in response to metabolic sleep cues (e.g., food ingredients and dietary stress). It is further hypothesized that the adaptive control of sleep behaviors by select amino acids and their conserved metabolic pathway suggests an ancestral nature of their sleep regulation. Future studies should address if the serine-glycine-threonine metabolic pathway constitutes the sleep homeostat that can sense and respond to different types of sleep needs. In addition, it will be interesting to determine if this metabolic regulation of sleep is conserved among other animals, including humans (Ki, 2019).

Feeding and sleep are highly conserved, interconnected behaviors essential for survival. Starvation has been shown to potently suppress sleep across species; however, whether satiety promotes sleep is still unclear. This study used the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, as a model organism to address the interaction between feeding and sleep. The sleep of flies that had been starved for 24 h was monitored, and sleep amount was found to increase in the first 4 h after flies were given food. Increased sleep after starvation was due to an increase in sleep bout number and average sleep bout length. Mutants of translin or adipokinetic hormone, which fail to suppress sleep during starvation, still exhibited a sleep increase after starvation, suggesting that sleep increase after starvation is not a consequence of sleep loss during starvation. It was also found that feeding activity and food consumption were higher in the first 10-30 min after starvation. Restricting food consumption in starved flies to 30 min was sufficient to increase sleep for 1 h. Although flies ingested a comparable amount of food at differing sucrose concentrations, sleep increase after starvation on a lower sucrose concentration was undetectable. Taken together, these results suggest that increased food intake after starvation enhances sleep and reveals a novel relationship between feeding and sleep (Regalado, 2017).

Most animals sleep or exhibit a sleep-like state, yet the adaptive significance of this phenomenon remains unclear. Although reproductive deficits are associated with lifestyle induced sleep deficiencies, how sleep loss affects reproductive physiology is poorly understood, even in model organisms. This study aimed to bridge this mechanistic gap by impairing sleep in female fruit flies and testing its effect on egg output. Sleep deprivation by feeding caffeine or by mechanical perturbation was shown to result in decreased egg output. Transient activation of wake-promoting dopaminergic neurons decreases egg output in addition to sleep levels, thus demonstrating a direct negative impact of sleep deficit on reproductive output. Similarly, loss-of-function mutation in dopamine transporter fumin (fmn) leads to both significant sleep loss and lowered fecundity. This demonstration of a direct relationship between sleep and reproductive fitness indicates a strong driving force for the evolution of sleep (Potdar, 2018a).

Neurotransmitters play an important role in regulating the physiological activity of the animal, especially in emotion and sleep. While nucleotides are involved in almost all cellular processes. However, the characteristics of sleep-related neurochemicals under different life cycles and environment remain poorly understood. A rapid and sensitive analytical method was established with LC-MS/MS to determine eight endogenous neurochemicals in Drosophila melanogaster and the levels of neurochemicals in the different developmental stages of Drosophila melanogaster were evaluated. The results indicated that there were significant discrepancies among different stages, especially from pupal stage to adult. The levels of these compounds in caffeine-induced insomnia model of Drosophila melanogaster were investigated. Compared with normal group the eight endogenous metabolites did not fluctuate significantly in insomnia Drosophila melanogaster, which may be due to the mechanism of caffeine-induced insomnia through other pathways, such as adenosine. The results provide a reference for decoding of neurochemicals involved in the development of the full cycle of mammalian life and exploration of insomnia even other mental diseases induced by exogenous substances in the future (Sun, 2022).

Circadian clocks modulate timing of sleep/wake cycles in animals; however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In Drosophila melanogaster, large ventral lateral neurons (l-LN_v) are known to promote wakefulness through the action of the neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor (PDF), but the downstream targets of PDF signalling remain elusive. In a screen using downregulation or overexpression (OEX) of the gene encoding PDF receptor (pdfr), this study found that a subset of dopaminergic neurons responds to PDF to promote wakefulness during the day. Moreover, this study found that small LN_v (sLN_v) and dopaminergic neurons form synaptic contacts, and PDFR signalling inhibited dopaminergic neurons specifically during day time. It is proposed that these dopaminergic neurons that respond to PDFR signalling are sleep-promoting and that during the day when PDF levels are high, they are inhibited, thereby promoting wakefulness. Thus, this study has identified a novel circadian clock pathway that mediates wake promotion specifically during day time (Potdar, 2018b).

Daily cycles in several environmental factors synchronize endogenous circadian clocks which drive rhythmic sleep/wake patterns in many organisms. Homeostatic mechanisms modulate the amount and depth of sleep, and also allow animals to recover from any sleep deprivation they may have incurred. Together, these processes control the timing and occurrence of sleep and wake states, thereby modulating sleep/wake cycles. Since the discovery that sleep behavior of Drosophila melanogaster is similar to mammalian sleep in several aspects, many pathways and neuronal circuits involving sleep homeostat and circadian clocks have been uncovered. Genes such as minisleep (mns) and hyperkinetic (hk) encoding subunits of Shaker potassium channel function in the sleep homeostat. More recently, central complex structures such as dorsal fan-shaped body (FB) and the ellipsoid body (EB) have been shown to function as effector and modulator of the sleep homeostat, respectively. Meanwhile, mutations in core circadian clock genes such as Clock (clk) and Cycle (cyc) have been shown to cause impaired timing of sleep as they tend to become nocturnal. The circadian neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor (PDF) and its receptor (PDFR) are involved in relaying wake-promoting signals from the circadian pacemaker ventral lateral neurons (LN_vs) in response to light input as well as dopamine. While it has been suggested that the EB may be the downstream target of this wake-promoting PDF/PDFR signaling, the evidence in favor of the same is limited (Potdar, 2018b).

In the recent past, in the quest to uncover output pathways of the circadian clocks that help in timing of sleep/wake cycles, a few dedicated circuits have been mapped. Most notably, timing of sleep onset at the beginning of night is a function of increased inhibition of wake-promoting large LN_v (l-LN_v) by GABA. In contrast, sleep is suppressed at the end of night by the action of PDF on the PDFR+ dorsal neuron 1 (DN1) group of the circadian network that in turn secretes the wake-promoting neuropeptide diuretic hormone 31 (DH31). Furthermore, yet another group showed that DN1s through glutamate modulate day-time siesta and night-time sleep by inhibiting the morning (small LN_v; s-LN_v) and evening (dorsal lateral neurons; LNds) activity controlling circadian neurons. Yet, none of the studies so far have shed light on how circadian neurons may induce wakefulness during the day (Potdar, 2018b).

This question was addressed by screening for putative downstream targets of PDFR signaling by altering the levels of pdfr expression in several subsets of neurons - namely, circadian neurons that are known to express pdfr, subsets of mushroom body (MB) neurons that are sleep- or wake-promoting, wake-promoting pars intercerebralis (PI), sleep homeostat EB, and sleep-promoting FB neurons as well as aminergic neuronal groups, most of which are reported to be wake-promoting. Strikingly, this study found that a subset of dopaminergic neurons responds to changes in pdfr expression by changing the levels of day-time sleep, increasing pdfr levels decreases day-time sleep and vice versa. Moreover, PDF+ and dopaminergic neurons were found to form synaptic contacts with one another, along with the possibility of the former inhibiting the latter. Thus, these results uncover a dedicated pathway involving signaling from the PDF+ neurons perhaps to the PPM3 dopaminergic neurons in the regulation of wakefulness during the day (Potdar, 2018b).

Dopamine is primarily involved in promoting wakefulness and is known to act on l-LN_v as well as inhibit sleep-promoting dFB to carry out its wake-promoting function. This study has revealed that certain dopamine neurons are in fact sleep-promoting and through the inhibitory action of PDFR signaling, wakefulness gets promoted specifically during the day. additional experiments that use optogenetic techniques can shed more light on whether these dopaminergic neurons promote sleep directly, or indirectly by preventing wakefulness either through a gating mechanism or by a permissive role. Interestingly, a previous study has found that dopamine acts on l-LN_v to promote wakefulness and this study found that PDFR signaling acts on dopamine neurons, suggesting a feed-forward pathway for wake promotion, where dopamine acting on l-LN_v promotes the inhibition of sleep-promoting dopaminergic neurons by PDFR signaling. The identity of dopamine neurons acting on l-LN_v and those responding to PDFR signaling may differ which can be uncovered with additional experiments (Potdar, 2018b).

The role of s-LN_v in modulating sleep and wake has been explored in some detail in the recent years. s-LN_v have also been shown to promote sleep via short NPF (sNPF) as well as myoinhibitory peptide (MiP) by inhibiting the wake-promoting l-LN_v. This study shows that PDF+ s-LN_v make synaptic contacts with dopaminergic neurons and that PDFR signaling inhibits the downstream dopaminergic neurons to promote wakefulness during the day. Moreover, this study has shown a secondary role for s-LN_v in modulating wake-promoting effects of l-LN_v. Yet, how this wake-promoting signal which originates in the l-LN_v gets relayed to the s-LN_v is not understood. Furthermore, from the screen it is clear that this function is not mediated via PDFR signaling among the LN_v, as downregulating and overexpressing pdfr in s-LN_v (Clk 9M GAL4 and Pdf GAL4) do not result in any sleep defects. Thus, l-LN_v to s-LN_v wake-promoting signal is independent of PDF while s-LN_v to dopamine wake-promoting signal requires PDFR signaling (Potdar, 2018b).

PDFR being a class B1 GPCR utilizes cAMP as its second messenger, although there is evidence for Ca2+ also acting as the second messenger. For most of the functions of PDF including stabilizing core clock proteins such as TIMELESS and PERIOD in different target neurons such as DN1s and s-LN_v, cAMP is the major secondary messenger. Moreover, it is thought that different actions of PDF of slowing and speeding up of morning and evening clock neurons is also mediated by different components of cAMP signaling mechanism. However, this study shows that for the function of regulating wake levels during the day time, PDFR signaling changes levels of intracellular Ca2+ in dopamine neurons with negligible role for cAMP signaling, suggesting a mechanism by which a neuropeptide that has diverse effects on its downstream targets can modulate different functions independently. This study therefore identified a unique subset of downstream targets for PDFR signaling among the dopamine neurons that promote wakefulness depending on time of day (Potdar, 2018b).

Interestingly, in this screen it is noted that there are several driver lines which there are significant changes in day-time sleep but with only one type of manipulation of pdfr levels (Clk 4.1M, 30y, 104y, 121y GAL4). This may be due to ineffective downregulation of pdfr achieved through the Pdfr RNAi line with these particular drivers. Given that PDF is a neuropeptide which can have long-range non-synaptic effects, even misexpressing it (104y and 121y GAL4) in different substrates has resulted in altered day-time sleep levels. Because DH31 can also respond to PDFR, it is possible that these effects could be mediated by DH31 binding to misexpressed PDFR. However, this may not be the case as downregulating DH31-receptor in these regions does not cause changes in sleep levels. Thus, it can be concluded that in regions previously not known to express pdfr, misexpression of pdfr can cause sleep level deficits suggesting that PDF can act in regions which are not direct targets yet may lie in the vicinity of LN_v projections (Potdar, 2018b).

The role of PDF/PDFR signaling is well-known in synchronizing the free-running molecular rhythms in neurons across the circadian network. PDFR signaling in the 'evening' neurons (LNd and 5th s-LN_v) is important for appropriate phasing of the evening bout of activity in light/dark cycles. While the role of PDF as a wake-signal has been known, this study demonstrates that a subset of dopaminergic neurons is downstream of the PDF/PDFR signaling. While the PDFR expression is not conclusive, it is shown that perhaps one PPM3 neuron per hemisphere may express the PDFR. Additional experiments that more directly test the functional connectivity between dopaminergic neurons and PDF+ neurons, as well as responsiveness of dopaminergic neurons to PDF may result in a clearer picture. Downregulating pdfr in these neurons results in increase of day-time sleep, which is a phenocopy of the sleep behavior of loss-of-function pdfr whole-body mutants. On the other hand, overexpressing pdfr in these neurons leads to decrease of day-time sleep specifically. It was further shown that PDF and dopaminergic neurons make synaptic contacts with each other at the site of the axonal projection of s-LN_v. Moreover, the effect of PDFR signaling on the PPM3 neurons appears to be inhibitory, suggesting that the PDFR+ PPM3 neurons promote sleep. Taken together, it is concluded that wake-promoting LN_v make synaptic connections with sleep-promoting dopaminergic neurons and promote wakefulness specifically during the day time through inhibitory PDFR signaling (Potdar, 2018b).

Each day and in conjunction with ambient daylight conditions, neuropeptide PDF regulates the phase and amplitude of locomotor activity rhythms in Drosophila through its receptor, PDFR, a Family B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). The in vivo process was studied by which PDFR signaling turns off, by converting as many as half of the 28 potential sites of phosphorylation in its C terminal tail to a non-phosphorylatable residue (alanine). Many such sites are conserved evolutionarily, and their conversion creates a specific behavioral syndrome opposite to loss-of-function phenotypes previously described for pdfr. That syndrome includes increases in the amplitudes of both Morning and Evening behavioral peaks, as well as multi-hour delays of the Evening phase. The precise behavioral effects were dependent on day-length, and most effects mapped to conversion of only a few, specific serine residues near the very end of the protein and specific to its A isoform. Behavioral phase delays of the Evening activity under entraining conditions predicted the phase of activity cycles under constant darkness. The behavioral phenotypes produced by the most severe PDFR variant were ligand-dependent in vivo, and not a consequence of changes to their pharmacological properties, nor of changes in their surface expression, as measured in vitro. The mechanisms underlying termination of PDFR signaling are complex, subject to regulation that is modified by season, and central to a better understanding of the peptidergic modulation of behavior (Li, 2022).

In Drosophila, neuropeptide PDF signaling helps pattern the output of the fly circadian pacemaker network that controls rhythmic daily locomotor activity. Its functions have been compared to those of neuropeptide VIP in regulating mammalian circadian physiology. Historically PDF was first isolated as an active principle (Pigment Dispersing Hormone) that mediates light-dependent dispersion of pigment granules in diverse chromatophores of crustacea. In the insect circadian system, PDF acts for a specified period within each 24 hr cycle, and works in conjunction with environmental light to set phase and amplitude for locomotor activity rhythms that normally occur around dawn and dusk. Each day, the precise times of dusk and of dawn change, which alters the time interval between them. These facts require that the time of PDF signaling, the point when it starts and the point when it stops, must also be adjusted each day to appropriately follow and reflect these daily variations in the light: dark transitions. PDF signaling starts following its release by specific pacemaker neurons, whose period of activity in vivo tracks the dawn in a variety of photoperiodic conditions. A comparable understanding of how PDF receptor signaling normally stops is lacking: this work addresses that mechanism (Li, 2022).

The PDF receptor (PDFR) is a member of the Family B (secretin receptor-like) GPCR group: it is Gs-coupled and its activation elevates cAMP levels in vivo. It regulates different adenylate cyclases (AC) in diverse target pacemakers (Duval, 2012; Duval, 2013), which, through PKA activation, ultimately regulate the pace of the molecular clock through regulation of Timeless (Seluzicki, 2014). PDFR autoreceptor signaling promotes dramatic, daily morphological changes in the axonal terminals of sLNv pacemakers. In addition to its effects on the pace of the molecular pacemaker, PDFR activation also regulates calcium dynamics in subsets of pacemaker neuron groups to help dictate their group-specific, daily phases of activation (in the sLNv, in the 5th sLNv and in subsets of LNd, and DN3 groups). Such target cell-specific delays of PER-dependent neuronal activity illustrate the basis by which the circadian network produces a daily series of staggered phasic, neuronal outputs. Finally, PDF/PDFR signaling is long-lasting: its depression of basal calcium levels in target neurons persists without abatement over many hours. These observations raise fundamental questions regarding the mechanism and the time course by which PDFR signaling diminishes in anticipation of the next day's cycle of signaling (Li, 2022).

The canonical model of GPCR phosphorylation and homologous desensitization features G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) which associate with activated GPCRs and phosphorylate cytosolic segments, thereby recruiting βarrestin via its β-arrestins uncouple the receptors from G proteins. or enhance receptor endocytosis; they can also serve as signal transducers by recruiting distinct signaling molecules. A second major regulatory mechanism to reduce GPCR signaling is heterologous desensitization, whereby second-messenger-dependent kinases (PKA or PKC) phosphorylate GPCRs. Thus, experiments were to modify evolutionarily-conserved residues in the C terminal tail of PDFR that could conceivably serve as substrates for phosphorylation and subsequent signal termination. The working hypothesis was that, by their actions in vivo, such modified PDF receptors would reveal extended lifetimes of activation (Li, 2022).

Little is known about the mechanisms that underlie normal termination of PDFR signaling. In the small LNv, pdfr levels are higher late in the day than in early morning. Sensitivity to PDF in vivo peaks in the early day and is regulated by the PER-dependent clock, via post-transcriptional mechanisms: the EC50 for PDF responses in identified neurons varies systematically 5-10 fold: as a consequence of RalA action, as a function of time of day, and as a function of seasonality. PDFR signaling is long-lasting: it persists for many hours in vivo, for as long as free peptide ligand is available in the bath. In addition, β-arrestin2-GFP is not efficiently recruited to activated PDFR when the receptor is functionally-expressed in hEK-293T cells. In contrast, each of 13 other Drosophila neuropeptide GPCRs (including two Family B GPCRs, CG8422 and CG17415) efficiently recruit β-arrestin2-GFP, when they are activated by their cognate ligands in that cellular environment (Li, 2022).

This study reports (1) that PDFR is normally phosphorylated in vivo at conserved C terminal residues; (2) that loss of conserved PDFR phosphorylatable sites leads to a behavioral syndrome opposite to loss-of-function pdf and pdfr phenotypes, with effects on both the amplitude and phase of the daily locomotor peaks. This 'gain of function' approach reveals a multi-hour range of potential phases for both the Morning and Evening activity peaks, within which neuropeptide PDF:PDFR signaling normally specifies rhythmic behavior, according to season. In addition, using a structure-function approach, this work identifies specific PDFR sequence elements that are major points at which the duration of receptor activity is regulated, and through which behavior is modulated in season-specific fashion (Li, 2022).

A gain-of-function approach was used to measure neuropeptide GPCR function in vivo. In doing so, attempts were made to learn about the maximal consequences of PDFR GPCR signaling and also learn something about the phosphorylation events that normally control the duration of PDFR's signaling lifetime. Expression of a PDF receptor variant, containing numerous Ala-substitutions of conserved phosphorylatable residues in the C terminal domain (1-7A), fundamentally altered rhythmic locomotor behavior in Drosophila. The changes included increases in the amplitudes of the Morning and/or Evening activity peaks, and delays in the Phase of the Evening peak. Such results are generally consistent with a prediction whereby non-phosphorylatable PDFR variants-those with a potential to increase the duration of PDFR signaling-would produce behavioral actions opposite to those seen in loss-of-function pdf, or pdfr mutant stocks. Accordingly, it is speculated that phosphorylation of the PDFR at these conserved residues normally defines the duration of its active signaling state each day. The longer duration that follows the substitutions of Ala may allow receptor signal strength to also increase by accrual: such an effect could explain the increased amplitude of the Morning and Evening peaks, as seen with expression of some of the variants. In this context, it is acknowledged that modification of GPCRs by phosphorylation does not exclusively lead to signal termination. GRK2-dependent phosphorylation of the smoothened (smo) GPCR follows reception of the Hh signal and helps mediate its signal: phosphorylation leads to Smo activation in both Drosophila and mammalian systems. Thus modification of putative phosphorylation sites on GPCRs (to preclude phosphorylation) will not exclusively promote extended signaling. Therefore the interpretations must correspondingly consider outcomes without a priori assumption of mechanisms (Li, 2022).

PDFR belongs to the Secretin Receptor Family (Family B) of neuropeptide receptors: there is no clear consensus regarding mechanisms of desensitization and internalization for this receptor family. For VPAC2 receptors, phosphorylation and internalization is mediated exclusively by GRK2. Likewise, Drosophila orthologues of Cortocotrophin Releasing Factor receptors (CG8422, DH44-R1) and Calcitonin receptors (CG17415, DH31-R1) are internalized in hEK cells following recruitment of β-arrestin2. In contrast, PDFR, which is also related to the mammalian Calcitonin receptor, is not internalized following exposure to PDF. VPAC2 receptors are also regulated by heterologous receptor signaling: M3 cholinergic receptors via PKC signaling can block VPAC2 phosphorylation, desensitization and internalization. Furthermore, secretin receptors and VPAC1 receptors undergo phosphorylation by GRKs and β-arrestin2-dependent desensitization, but these are not sufficient to facilitate or mediate internalization. Finally, GLP2-Receptor associates with β-arrestin2 via its distal C terminal sequences, but that receptor domain is required neither for GLP2-R desensitization nor its internalization. Thus kinases other than GRKs and effectors other than β-arrestin2 may regulate internalization of diverse Family B receptors (Li, 2022).

Following activation of rhodopsin in the mammalian retina, visual arrestin is recruited with a time constant of < 80 ms; for many Drosophila neuropeptide receptors, β-arrestin2 is recruited within a minute of exposure to ligand. The PDFR GPCR signals over a time base of many hours: could phosphorylation/de-phosphorylation also regulate its activity? The mammalian blue-light sensitive GPCR melanopsin (OPN4) mediates intrinsic light sensitivity in certain classes of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs): melanopsin signaling is distinguished by long latencies, graded responses and sustained RGC depolarization that can outlast the duration of the light stimulus. Melanopsin-expressing RGCs produce exceptionally long time-course integration because that GPCR behaves differently from other opsins in two fundamental ways. Firstly, it undergoes photoequilibration between signaling and silent states: a property that maintains the availability of pigment molecules for activation, termed 'tristability'. Secondly, phosphorylation and β-arrestin recruitment do contribute to the kinetics of melanopsin signaling, but over a long time-course. It has been proposed that the distal portion of the melanopsin C terminal tail creates a steric blockade covering a cluster of specific serine residues situated in more proximal regions. The time required for relief of that blockade dictates the time course of GPCR phosphorylation and therefore delays subsequent desensitization (Li, 2022).

The 1-7A PDFR variant modified the greatest number of phosphorylatable residues in the series that was tested, and typically produced the strongest behavioral effects. Notably, the 6A variant-which modified only two specific Ser residues-produced effects that were nearly identical to those exhibited by flies expressing the 1-7A form. This suggests that much PDFR post-translational modification, that which is capable of restricting its signaling time-course, may be directed to specific phosphorylation sites near the extreme C terminal end. There are two broadly divergent hypotheses to describe the mechanisms by which GPCR phosphorylation promotes desensitization. The first proposes that modification of specific residues have the greatest significance for downstream desensitizing mechanisms: such a mechanism can explain the effects seen with the highly limited 6A PDFR variant. The second hypothesis invokes triggering of a termination processes by the aggregate negative charge accumulated with bulk phosphorylation, regardless of where it might occur along a GPCR's intracellular sequences. For some GPCRs (e.g., OPN4), the evidence supports both models. The current data concerning PDFR desensitization also support both viewpoints and a model is presented (see A model predicting the effects of phosphorylating different sites on the PDFR CT on downstream signaling.). In particular CL6 and CL7 are considered to be the specific residues especially critical in terminating the time course of PDFR signaling. Notably, converting just the single pair of CL6 AAs, or the single pair of CL7 AAs, is enough to generate hours-long delays in the peaks of locomotor rhythms under Light:Dark conditions. It is noted that the splicing event that distinguishes the PDFR-A and PDFR-D isoforms occurs just prior to the position of sequences encoding CL6 and 7, such that the D form lacks these two highly conserved domains (flybase.org/download/sequence/FBgn0260753/FBpp). Other clusters (like CL2-3) also appear to have potential for 'specific' contributions to PDFR regulation. Together, these results speak to the potency of the inferred specific termination mechanisms for PDFR GPCR signaling. In contrast, the evidence for the bulk phosphorylation hypothesis comes from comparison of the 1-4A, versus the 1-5A, 1-6A and 1-7A variants. This series inactivates increasing numbers of phosphorylatable residues, and with it increasingly delayed evening phases in short day conditions are observed. The tandem mass-spectroscopy results, indicating endogenous phosphorylation of certain PDFR residues demonstrates such post-translational modifications can occur. However, it is cautioned that these phospho-peptide measurements derive from whole head extracts and may not provide a complete or relevant accounting of those sites that are modified in critical E pacemaker neurons (Li, 2022).

The results also point to what is proposed as 'context-dependent' effects of modifying specific GPCR residues-ones that may produce opposing behavioral effects, depending on the phosphorylation status of neighboring sites. In particular, opposing results were observed with Ala-variants of the CL5 site. In comparing results from the series 1-4A, 1-5A, 1-6A and 1-7A, it was found that under Short Day conditions, the 1-4A had only mild effects on the evening peak phase compared to over-expressing WT PDFR. Whereas 1-5A, 1-6A and 1-7A all produced significant delays. The difference between the 1-$A and 1-5A variants is a change in a single S residue at CL5 (S633A): Those observations suggest modification of the CL5 residue normally promotes desensitization of PDFR and termination of PDFR signaling. However, the PDFR variant 5-7A was constructed with the expectation that it would be as effective as 1-5A, 1-6A or 1-7A in delaying the evening phase. Instead it proved only weakly effective. This same mis-match of expected behavioral effects for 5-7A was also seen in other photoperiodic conditions. Likewise, Langlet (2005) reported that effects on mutating Serine residues in the terminus of VPAC1 did not produce additive effects. It is proposed that phosphorylation of CL5 will have either positive or negative consequences on PDFR desensitization depending on which other neighboring residues are also modified. Thus it is speculated that CL5 takes on outsize importance in determining desensitization rates for PDFR and so may itself be subject to exceptional regulation. Such complex interactions between phosphorylation sites is reminiscent of interactions documented between diverse phosphorylation sites in the circadian clock protein PERIOD. Better resolution of these two paradoxical mechanisms [(1) specific phosphorylation versus bulk negative charge, and (2) context-dependent effects of CL5 site phosphorylation] awaits precise molecular definition of where and when PDFR is modified in key pacemaker neurons in vivo, and by which post-translational modifications (Li, 2022).

The actions of PDFR variants that were described, following substitutions of Ala for various Ser/Thr or Tyr residues, are not easily explained by a hypothesis invoking neomorphic or constitutive GPCR properties. The evidence for this conclusion is three-fold. First, the effects on both amplitude and phase of activity peaks by these variants are not of a random assortment: rather they are all strictly opposite to that of loss-of-function models for pdf and pdfr. Second, the actions of PDFR variants display strong dependence on wild type pdf gene function: this strongly argues that the actions of PDFR variants reflect responses to normal, endogenous PDF signaling. Third, even the strongest actions of PDFR variants on the phases and amplitudes of locomotor activity (that of the 1-7A variant) reflected PDFR sequence variation, and not the properties of the GFP C-terminal fusion. Together these observations support the hypothesis that phosphorylation of some or all of the C terminal residues that were studied are normally modified to attenuate the strength and duration of PDFR signaling during the 24-hr day (Li, 2022).

PDF neuropeptide actions were discovered in the context of physiological adaptions to daylight in crustacea. PDF expression was discovered within a defined subset of the insect Drosophila circadian pacemaker network. Pdf has been shown to make a fundamental contribution by setting the normal behavioral phase of Evening activity in Drosophila during light:dark entrainment and promoting normal rhythmicity during constant darkness. PDF signaling coordinates with that driven by light: It works in parallel to direct photosensitivity along with the CRY blue light photoreceptor. Flies doubly-mutant for cry and pdf display pronounced deficits of locomotor rhythmicity, and can be as severe as measured in clock-deficient flies. PDF and environmental light also work coordinately at the level of neuronal activity patterns: in the case of the evening pacemakers (LNd and the 5th s-LNv), both light and PDF signaling promote a delay in their PER-dependent activation period, and together help align it to a phase just prior to dusk. Based on the close association of PDF signaling and photoperiodic signaling, it is not surprising that the duration of the photoperiod strongly influenced the effects of PDFR sequence variants on the Morning versus the Evening activity peaks. Delayed Evening activity peak produced by PDFR gain-of-function variants under Short Day conditions has been reported: that delay appears strongly inhibited by light durations > 8 hr. It remains unclear at what molecular level light exerts such an inhibitory effect, however, a similarity is noted of these observations with effects recently reported from loss-of-function states for the phosphatase PRL-1. Like the most active PDFR variants this study described (e.g., 6A, 7A, 1-5A 1-6A and 1-7A), PRL-1 mutants produce a 3-4 h delay in the phase of the evening activity peak, but only under winter-like (short day) conditions, and not under equinox or summer-like (long day) conditions. It has been shown that TIM phosphorylation is affected by PRL-1 activity and suggest the seasonal action of PRL-1 to advance the evening locomotor activity phase is mediated by modification of TIM levels within the transcription-translation feedback loop. The extensive similarity of these two sets of behavioral phenotypes reveals either serial or parallel pathways to effect comparable outcomes on locomotor activity. If serial, then according to the simplest model, PRL1 acts downstream of PDFR, and the combined results to-date suggest PRL-1 would be inhibited by PDFR activation. Further genetic and biochemical experiments are needed to evaluate if and how these pathways converge (Li, 2022).

Using an in vitro assay for cyclic AMP generation, this study found that modifying phosphorylation properties of PDFR does not affect the strength of signaling. That conclusion suggests that in vivo other GPCR features are normally affected to regulate the extent/duration of PDFR signaling according to season. This speculation corresponds to findings described with other Family B GPCRs like VPAC1: Mutation of all the Ser and Thr residues of the C terminal tail, and of Ser250 to Ala, led to a receptor with binding properties and adenylate cyclase activity similar to the wild type receptor; however that variant receptor was neither phosphorylated nor internalized. It is proposed that the PDFR variants this study has described do not modify locomotor behavior by virtue of greater second messenger signaling. Rather they do so by generating cAMP (and perhaps other second messengers) over time periods longer than that normal sustained by a WT receptor over a portion of each 24-hr cycle (Li, 2022).

Is PDFR modulation of diurnal phase independent of its modulation of circadian period? A conventional interpretation of the phenotypes that have been described is that PDFR signaling affects the pace of the molecular clock (re-setting the period) and consequently affects behavioral phase indirectly, which is downstream of the clock. However, PDFR variants reliably delayed the Evening activity phase under winter-like conditions, but these variants did not significantly lengthen circadian period. All effects of the 1-7A variant on circadian period were derived from the GFP fusion. Therefore, an alternative hypothesis cannot be ruled out: that the duration of PDF>PDFR signaling to target pacemakers in the Drosophila brain is modulated each day to directly delay Evening pacemaker neuronal activity independent of its effects on entrainment of the molecular clock. In fact, the pdfr han mutant flies exhibited quasi-normal tau values in this report, although they more traditionally exhibit shortened ones. Evening locomotor activity derives in large part from the activity of the primary Evening oscillators, termed E cells, the LNd and the 5th small LNv. However, numerous network interactions are also known to provide critical contributions to the accuracy, precision and adaptability of that timing system. The Evening oscillator group itself is known to be heterogeneous and to constitute at least three separate, functionally distinct oscillators, only some of which express PDFR-A and respond to PDF. It has been reported that the phase of Period protein accumulation in E neurons is phase-locked to the previous lights-off transition and also sensitive to PDF signaling. It was concluded that the peak of PER accumulation is key to determining the phase of the evening activity peak, but also note that the correlation between the Period-clock timing cue and the Evening activity peak is not perfect. It has been suggested the Evening behavioral phase is better described by also factoring in the delay in E cell neuronal activity driven by PDF neuromodulation. It is speculated that it is the combination of two separate PDFR signaling effects that is essential for proper rhythmic behavioral outcomes across seasons. If valid, the hypothesis predicts a bifurcation of signaling pathways downstream of PDFR, to independently regulate diurnal phase and also circadian period within E pacemaker neurons (Li, 2022).

Sleep during development is involved in refining brain circuitry, but a role for sleep in the earliest periods of nervous system elaboration, when neurons are first being born, has not been explored. This study has identified a sleep state in Drosophila larvae that coincides with a major wave of neurogenesis. Mechanisms controlling larval sleep are partially distinct from adult sleep: octopamine, the Drosophila analog of mammalian norepinephrine, is the major arousal neuromodulator in larvae, but dopamine is not required. Using real-time behavioral monitoring in a closed-loop sleep deprivation system, sleep loss in larvae was found to impair cell division of neural progenitors. This work establishes a system uniquely suited for studying sleep during nascent periods, and demonstrates that sleep in early life regulates neural stem cell proliferation (Szuperak, 2018).

Sleep and metabolism are physiologically and behaviorally intertwined; however, the molecular basis for their interaction remains poorly understood. This study identified a serine metabolic pathway as a key mediator for starvation-induced sleep suppression. Transcriptome analyses revealed that enzymes involved in serine biosynthesis were induced upon starvation in Drosophila melanogaster brains. Genetic mutants of astray (aay), a fly homolog of the rate-limiting phosphoserine phosphatase in serine biosynthesis, displayed reduced starvation-induced sleep suppression. In contrast, a hypomorphic mutation in a serine/threonine-metabolizing enzyme, serine/threonine dehydratase (stdh), exaggerated starvation-induced sleep suppression. Analyses of double mutants indicated that aay and stdh act on the same genetic pathway to titrate serine levels in the head as well as to adjust starvation-induced sleep behaviors. RNA interference-mediated depletion of aay expression in neurons, using cholinergic Gal4 drivers, phenocopied aay mutants, while a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist selectively rescued the exaggerated starvation-induced sleep suppression in stdh mutants. Taken together, these data demonstrate that neural serine metabolism controls sleep during starvation, possibly via cholinergic signaling. It is proposed that animals have evolved a sleep-regulatory mechanism that reprograms amino acid metabolism for adaptive sleep behaviors in response to metabolic needs (Sonn, 2018).

Salt (sodium chloride) is an essential dietary requirement, but excessive consumption has long-term adverse consequences. A high-salt diet (HSD) increases the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular conditions and diabetes and is also associated with poor sleep quality. Little is known, however, about the neural circuit mechanisms that mediate HSD-induced sleep changes. This study sought to identify the effects of HSD on the sleep and related neural circuit mechanisms of Drosophila. Strikingly, it was found that HSD causes young Drosophila to exhibit a fragmented sleep phenotype similar to that of normal aging individuals. Importantly, it was further shown that HSD slightly impairs circadian rhythms and that the HSD-induced sleep changes are dependent on the circadian rhythm system. In addition, it was demonstrated that HSD-induced sleep changes are dopaminergic-system dependent. Together, these results provide insight into how elevated salt in the diet can affect sleep quality (Xie, 2019).

Circadian rhythms offer an excellent opportunity to dissect the neural circuits underlying innate behavior because the genes and neurons involved are relatively well understood. This study sought to understand how Drosophila clock neurons interact in the simple circuit that generates circadian rhythms in larval light avoidance. Genetics was used to manipulate two groups of clock neurons, increasing or reducing excitability, stopping their molecular clocks, and blocking neurotransmitter release and reception. The results revealed that lateral neurons (LN_vs) promote and dorsal clock neurons (DN₁s) inhibit light avoidance, these neurons probably signal at different times of day, and both signals are required for rhythmic behavior. Similar principles apply in the more complex adult circadian circuit that generates locomotor rhythms. Thus, the changing balance in activity between clock neurons with opposing behavioral effects generates robust circadian behavior and probably helps organisms transition between discrete behavioral states, such as sleep and wakefulness (Collins, 2012).

This study identified some of the network logic that helps generate a simple rhythmic behavior through precise genetic manipulations of the larval circadian circuit and extended these findings to the more complex adult circadian network. Previous studies have shown that intercellular signaling in clock neuron networks promotes molecular clock synchrony and can strengthen genetically weak molecular clocks. This study increases the importance of circadian neural networks by finding that non-LN_v clock neurons are as important as the 'master' pacemaker LN_v clock neurons for rhythmic behavior both in larvae and adult flies. However, LN_vs can still be considered pacemakers in DD because most manipulations to non-LN_v clock neurons do not affect period length (Collins, 2012).

Non-LN_v signals appear to gate pacemaker neuron activity. Why is this necessary when LN_vs have their own intrinsic excitability rhythms? It is proposed that the interaction of two oscillators with opposite signs helps reduce the time when LN_vs signal. Without signaling from non-LN_vs, adult locomotor activity rhythms are weak and activity is distributed throughout the day and night as in tim-Gal4; Pdf-Gal80 > dORKΔC flies. In contrast, in tim-Gal4; Pdf-Gal80 > NaChBac flies, the timing of locomotor activity is narrowed. Thus, the gating of LN_v activity by non-LN_vs may help turn gradual changes in the excitability of each neuronal group into thresholds that promote a switch in overall output and allow flies to abruptly transition from inactivity to activity (Collins, 2012).

This gating system can only function if LN_vs and non-LN_vs have differently phased neuronal activity. However, most Drosophila clock neurons have similarly phased molecular clocks. It is proposed that molecular clocks in different clock neurons regulate divergent sets of output genes to generate distinct phases of neuronal excitability. This would be analogous to the mammalian circadian system, in which molecular clocks in different tissues drive tissue-specific outputs. In summary, this genetic dissection of a circadian neural circuit reveals an unexpected and essential role for inhibitory signals from non-LN_vs (E cells) in shaping activity profiles at dawn and a mechanism for how clock neurons couple together to promote robust rhythms (Collins, 2012).

The circadian system is comprised three components: a network of core clock cells in the brain that keeps time, input pathways that entrain clock cells to the environment, and output pathways that use this information to ensure appropriate timing of physiological and behavioral processes throughout the day. Core clock cells can be divided into molecularly distinct populations that likely make unique functional contributions. This study clarifies the role of the dorsal neuron 1 (DN1) population of clock neurons in the transmission of circadian information by the Drosophila core clock network. Using an intersectional genetic approach that allowed selective and comprehensive targeting of DN1 cells, this study shows the suppressing DN1 neuronal activity alters the magnitude of daily activity and sleep without affecting overt rhythmicity. This suggests that DN1 cells are dispensable for both the generation of circadian information and the propagation of this information across output circuits (Nettnin, 2021).

Animals display a body body temperature rhythm (BTR). Little is known about the mechanisms by which a rhythmic pattern of BTR is regulated and how body temperature is set at different times of the day. As small ectotherms, Drosophila exhibit a daily temperature preference rhythm (TPR), which generates BTR. This study demonstrates dorsal clock networks that play essential roles in TPR. Dorsal neurons 2 (DN2s) are the main clock for TPR. It was found that DN2s and posterior DN1s (DN1ps) contact and the extent of contacts increases during the day and that the silencing of DN2s or DN1ps leads to a lower temperature preference. The data suggest that temporal control of the microcircuit from DN2s to DN1ps contributes to TPR regulation. This study also identified anterior DN1s (DN1as) as another important clock for TPR. Thus, this study shows that the DN networks predominantly control TPR and determine both a rhythmic pattern and preferred temperatures (Chen, 2022).

A newly formed memory is initially unstable. However, if it is consolidated into the brain, the consolidated memory is stored as stable long-term memory (LTM). Despite the recent progress, the molecular and cellular mechanisms of LTM have not yet been fully elucidated. The fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster, for which various genetic tools are available, has been used to clarify the molecular mechanisms of LTM. Using the Drosophila courtship-conditioning assay as a memory paradigm, it was previously identified that the circadian clock gene period (per) plays a vital role in consolidating LTM, suggesting that per-expressing clock neurons are critically involved in LTM. However, it is still incompletely understood which clock neurons are essential for LTM. This study shows that dorsal-lateral clock neurons (LNds) play a crucial role in LTM. Using an LNd-specific split-GAL4 line, it wa confirmed that disruption of synaptic transmission in LNds impaired LTM maintenance. On the other hand, induction of per RNAi or the dominant-negative transgene of Per in LNds impaired LTM consolidation. These results reveal that transmitter release and Per function in LNds are involved in courtship memory processing (Suzuki, 2022).

Drosophila's lateral posterior neurons (LPNs) belong to a small group of circadian clock neurons that is so far not characterized in detail. Thanks to a new highly specific split-Gal4 line, this study describes LPNs' morphology in fine detail, their synaptic connections, daily bimodal expression of neuropeptides, and a putative role of this cluster in controlling daily activity and sleep patterns is proposed. The three LPNs were found to be heterogeneous. Two of the neurons with similar morphology arborize in the superior medial and lateral protocerebrum and most likely promote sleep. One unique, possibly wakefulness-promoting, neuron with wider arborizations extends from the superior lateral protocerebrum toward the anterior optic tubercle. Both LPN types exhibit manifold connections with the other circadian clock neurons, especially with those that control the flies' morning and evening activity (M- and E-neurons, respectively). In addition, they form synaptic connections with neurons of the mushroom bodies, the fan-shaped body, and with many additional still unidentified neurons. Both LPN types rhythmically express three neuropeptides, Allostatin A, Allostatin C, and Diuretic Hormone 31 with maxima in the morning and the evening. The three LPN neuropeptides may, furthermore, signal to the insect hormonal center in the pars intercerebralis and contribute to rhythmic modulation of metabolism, feeding, and reproduction. These findings are discussed in the light of anatomical details gained by the recently published hemibrain of a single female fly on the electron microscopic level and of previous functional studies concerning the LPN (Reinhard, 2021).

Though much is known about the cellular and molecular components of the circadian clock, output pathways that couple clock cells to overt behaviors have not been identified. A screen was conducted for circadian-relevant neurons in the Drosophila brain, and this study reports that cells of the pars intercerebralis (PI), a functional homolog of the mammalian hypothalamus, comprise an important component of the circadian output pathway for rest:activity rhythms. GFP reconstitution across synaptic partners (GRASP) analysis demonstrates that PI cells are connected to the clock through a polysynaptic circuit extending from pacemaker cells to PI neurons. Molecular profiling of relevant PI cells identified the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) homolog, DH44, as a circadian output molecule that is specifically expressed by PI neurons and is required for normal rest:activity rhythms. Notably, selective activation or ablation of just six DH44+ PI cells causes arrhythmicity. These findings delineate a circuit through which clock cells can modulate locomotor rhythms (Cavanaugh, 2014).

Given its location near the axonal projections of several groups of clock neurons and its function in metabolic, locomotor, and sleep processes, the PI has been proposed as a possible component of the output pathway in Drosophila, but direct evidence supporting a contribution to behavioral or physiological rhythms has been lacking. This study used a combined genetic, anatomical, and molecular approach to unequivocally identify specific subsets of PI cells as comprising part of the circadian output circuit for rest:activity rhythms. Ectopic activation of PI neurons is sufficient to induce behavioral arrythmicity, and similarly, ablation of small subsets of PI neurons results in loss of rest:activity rhythms. This latter result is consistent with previous studies showing that surgical destruction of the PI in both crickets and cockroaches results in loss of locomotor rhythms. It was further shown that manipulations of the PI that result in behavioral arrhythmicity do not affect the underlying molecular clock in s-LNvs, thus demonstrating that the PI exerts its effects downstream of clock neurons (Cavanaugh, 2014).

Importantly, this study has uncovered a segregation of different behavioral and physiological outputs by specific neurons of the PI. Thus, kurs58-GAL4+ PI neurons function to modulate locomotor behavior, whereas insulin-like peptide-producing PI cells, which constitute a nonoverlapping subset, influence metabolic processes. It will be of interest to determine whether Dilp2+ cells are also modulated by the clock, because such a result would suggest that the PI is a common relay for multiple circadian output circuits that couple to unique physiological functions, each subserved by discrete subpopulations of PI neurons. Furthermore, within kurs58-GAL4+ cells, there appear to be at least two subsets of neurons that contribute to rest:activity cycles. Interestingly, ablation of the SIFa-GAL4+ subset results in reduced rhythmicity, accompanied by decreases in sleep, whereas ablation of the DH44VT-GAL4+ subset also results in reduced rhythmicity, but in this case, the effect on sleep, if any, is an increase. Thus, it is possible that these two molecularly distinct populations control behavioral rhythms through opposing effects on locomotion and/or sleep, and thus, that the contribution of a particular subset predominates depending on time of day (Cavanaugh, 2014).

In conjunction with behavioral studies, GRASP analysis was used to trace neuronal connections emanating from the clock network. It was found that s-LNvs, which function as master pacemakers, make limited connections within the clock cell network and do not appear to directly access output cells of the PI. Instead, PI output cells receive time-of-day information through inputs from DN1 clock cells, as demonstrated by the fact that presynaptic components of DN1 cells adjoin dendrites of PI neurons, in the same brain region where GRASP analysis reveals cellular contacts between these two cell groups. Several studies corroborate a function of DN1 neurons downstream of s-LNvs to mediate rest:activity rhythms. Dorsal neurons are responsive to bath application of PDF, and restoration of the PDF receptor selectively in these neurons of pdfr mutant flies is sufficient to rescue multiple aspects of circadian locomotor rhythms. Furthermore, speeding up the molecular clock in s-LNvs causes concomitant acceleration of molecular cycling in several groups of dorsal neurons, including DN1s. These experiments, along with the current study, argue that DN1 neurons serve an important output function within the clock network and likely reside downstream of s-LNvs in the output circuit for rest:activity rhythms. The data are therefore consistent with a very simple circadian output circuit, in which time-of-day information from the clock network, which is generated by master pacemaker cells (s-LNvs and possibly LNds), passes through dorsal clock neurons (including DN1s) before accessing downstream output neurons of the PI, which then integrate these signals to modulate locomotor rhythms. Whether the PI also lies downstream of other groups of dorsal clock neurons, in addition to DN1s, or whether all time-of-day signals received by the PI pass through DN1 cells remains to be determined (Cavanaugh, 2014).

Within the brain, projections from the PI primarily terminate in the dorsal tritocerebrum; however, more diffuse termination patterns throughout the central brain and optic lobes have been observed for SIFa+ PI neurons. The PI also accesses neurohemal organs via the esophageal canal, as well as directly releasing peptides into the hemolymph. Thus, signals released from the PI could either act within neuronal tissue or systemically via release of peptide neurotransmitters and other hormones. The latter possibility is consistent with studies that showed that transplantation of per^s brains into the abdomen of per mutant flies rescued locomotor rhythms, demonstrating that release of a secreted factor underlies brain control of rest:activity rhythms in flies. Similarly, abdominal transplantation of PI cells is sufficient to alter sexually dimorphic locomotor patterns, indicating that the PI can modulate locomotor behavior in a neuroendocrine manner (Cavanaugh, 2014).

Through single-cell transcriptome analysis, the CRF-like peptide, DH44, was identified as a candidate molecule through which PI neurons might influence locomotor behavior. Consistent with this possibility, RNAi-mediated knockdown, or genetic antagonism, of DH44 resulted in altered locomotor behavior and weakened rest:activity rhythms. In addition, selective activation or destruction of DH44+ PI neurons also substantially weakened rest:activity rhythms. In flies, DH44 acts as a diuretic hormone, which stimulates fluid secretion from Malpighian tubules through a cyclic AMP (cAMP) pathway. Its role as a stress molecule is less clear, but DH44 receptor has also been localized to corazonin+ cells of the lateral protocerebrum, which may be involved in the stress response of the fly. Notably, manipulations of neuronal excitability in corazonin+ cells alter stress-induced locomotor activity. In mammals, stress hormones, such as glucocorticoids, show diurnal cycles of secretion and serve as entrainment signals for peripheral clocks. Thus, stress hormones may play a conserved role in circadian regulation of behavioral and physiological processes (Cavanaugh, 2014).

Drosophila melanogaster has facilitated genetic studies of nervous system development and remodeling. Notwithstanding the relatively stereotyped circuitry, flies exhibit experience-induced alterations in neuronal structures and behaviors such as learning and memory). In a study of experience-dependent modifications of the Drosophila larval CNS, it has been found that different light exposures dramatically altered dendritic arbors of ventral lateral neurons [LN(v)s], which are postsynaptic to the photoreceptors. Unlike the visual activity-induced dendrite growth in Xenopus optic tectum, extending the light exposure of Drosophila larvae reduced the LN(v)s' dendrite length and functional output, a homeostatic plasticity for compensatory adaptation to alterations in sensory inputs. It was further shown that the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) pathway and an immunoglobulin domain-containing cell surface protein, CG3624, are critical for this sensory experience-induced structural plasticity in Drosophila CNS (Yuan, 2011).

In Drosophila larvae, Bolwig's organ (BO) senses light, and its likely postsynaptic targets are LN(v)s. As the major circadian pacemaker, LN(v)s are important for the entrainment to environmental light-dark cycles and larval light avoidance behavior. In the larval brain, Bolwig's nerve (BN), the axonal projection from BO, terminates in an area overlapping the dendritic field of LN(v)s. Using the FRT-FLP system [in which DNA sequences flanked by flippase recognition targets (FRT) are snipped out by flippase (FLP)] along with three-dimensional (3D) tracing, the dendritic arbor of individual LN(v) neurons were labeled and analyzed. Then potential synaptic connections were demonstrated between BN and LN(v)s using the GRASP [green fluorescent protein (GFP) reconstitution across synaptic partners] technique to drive expression of one-half of the split GFP in the BN by means of Gal4/UAS and expression of the other half of the split GFP in LN(v)s via LexA/LexAop. The proximity of putative synaptic connections between BN and LN(v)s' dendrites reconstituted GFP fluorescence for photoreceptors expressing either rhodopsin 5 (Rh5) or rhodopsin 6 (Rh6) in BO, which suggested that both groups of photoreceptors may have synaptic connections with LN(v)s (Yuan, 2011).

To test whether LN(v)s can be activated by BN inputs through light stimulation, calcium imaging was performed using GCaMP3 transgenic flies with the larval brain-eye preparation, which included BO, BN, developing eye disks, the larval brain, and ventral nerve cord. Because BO senses blue and green light, the confocal laser at 488 nm (blue) and 543 nm (green) were used to stimulate these larval photoreceptors. LN(v)s' axon terminals displayed a relatively stable baseline of GCaMP3 fluorescence and, upon light stimulation, yielded large calcium responses, which increased with the greater intensity and longer duration of the light pulses (Yuan, 2011).

Recent studies suggest that Cryptochrome (CRY) in adult large LN(v)s senses light and elicits neuronal firing. In larvae, however, severing BN abolished light-induced calcium responses in LN(v)s. The loss-of-function mutation of NorpA (no-receptor-potential A), encoding a phospholipase C crucial for phototransduction, also eliminated these calcium responses, which indicated that light-elicited responses in LN(v)s are generated via phototransduction in larval photoreceptors rather than as a direct response to light by LN(v)s (Yuan, 2011).

In animals with BO genetically ablated, the dendritic field of LN(v) is absent. To test whether BO is required for LN(v)s' dendrite maintenance, the expression of cell death genes rpr and hid was induced in BO after synapse formation, and the LN(v) dendrite length was also found to be greatly reduced. Whereas physical contacts with BN or growth-promoting factors released from presynaptic axons could be important for LN(v)s' dendrite maintenance, it is also possible that synaptic activity from BN promotes LN(v) dendrite growth, as suggested by previous studies. To explore the latter scenario, newly hatched larvae were provided with different visual experiences through various light regimes-including the standard 12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark daily cycle (LD); constant darkness (DD) for sensory deprivation; constant light (LL) for enhanced light input; 16-hour light and 8-hour dark cycle, mimicking a long day; and 8-hour light and 16-hour dark cycle, mimicking a short day. The dendrite morphology of LN(v)s of late third instar larvae was examined. Whereas different light exposure had no detectable effects on larval developmental timing, increasing light exposure reduced the total dendrite length of individual LN(v) neurons, with the longest dendrite in constant darkness and the shortest dendrite length in constant light condition. Thus, not only is the LN(v) dendrite dependent on the presence of presynaptic nerve fibers, its length is modified by the sensory experience in a compensatory fashion, whereby an increase in sensory inputs causes a reduction in the dendrite length and vice versa (Yuan, 2011).

Whereas adult LN(v)s alter their axon terminal structures in a circadian cycle-controlled fashion, no difference was found in dendrite morphology of LN(v)s from larvae collected at four different time points around the clock, which indicated that circadian regulation is not involved in the light-induced modification of LN(v) dendrites. Under regular light-dark conditions, LN(v) dendrites expanded as the larval brain size increased from the second to the third instar stage. However, the dendrite length of the LL group increased at a significantly slower rate than the DD group. It thus appears that light exposure retards the growth of LN(v) dendrites throughout the larval development (Yuan, 2011).

To test the contribution of different light-sensing pathways, loss-of-function mutations of Cry (cry⁰¹) or NorpA (norpA³⁶) and of double mutants lacking both Rh5 and Rh6 (rh5²;rh6¹) were examined. Although wild-type and cry⁰¹ larvae displayed differences in their dendrite length when exposed to constant darkness versus constant light, such light-induced changes were absent in the rh5²;rh6¹ double mutant and the norpA³⁶ mutant. Thus, similar to the calcium response to light, light-induced modification of LN(v) dendritic structure requires visual transduction mediated by rhodopsin and NorpA in BO but not Cry function in LN(v)s (Yuan, 2011).

To manipulate the level of synaptic activity, the BO excitability was weither increased by expressing the heat-activated Drosophila transient-receptor-potential A1 (dTrpA) channel, or transmitter release from BN was reduced through a temperature-sensitive form of the dominant-negative dynamin, Shibire^ts (Shi^ts). These manipulations eliminated light-induced modification of LN(v) dendrites at 29°C. Reducing BO activity by means of Shi^ts caused dendrite expansion, as if the animal detected no light, whereas increasing BO activity by means of the dTrpA channel resulted in reduction of LN(v) dendrites, a process reminiscent of constant light exposure (Yuan, 2011).

Whether intrinsic LN(v) neuronal activity drives modification of its dendrite morphology was further tested by expression of either the sodium channel NaChBac to increase excitability or the potassium channel Kir2.1 to reduce excitability. LN(v)s expressing Kir2.1 showed reduced or no calcium responses upon light stimulation. In contrast, LN(v)s expressing NaChBac displayed numerous peaks in GCaMP3 signals in the presence or absence of light stimulation, indicative of elevated spontaneous activities. Upon examining LN(v) dendrites, it was found that neuronal excitability of the LN(v) was inversely proportional to its dendrite length (Yuan, 2011).

These results obtained using genetic approaches agreed with findings in experiments with different environmental light conditions. They suggested that LN(v)'s dendritic structures are modified according to its neuronal activity, which varies with light-induced synaptic inputs (Yuan, 2011).

To test whether synaptic contacts of BN on LN(v)s are modified by light, synapses formed by BN with EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein)-tagged Cacophony (Cac-EGFP) were marked, because Cacophony is a calcium channel localized at presynaptic terminals and its distribution correlates with the number of synapses. Close association was found of Cac-EGFP-expressing structures with LN(v)s' dendritic arbors. Compared with regular light-dark conditions, constant darkness increased, whereas constant light reduced, the total intensity of Cac-EGFP, which suggested that light modified not only dendritic arbors of LN(v)s but also the number of synaptic contacts impinging on LN(v) dendrites (Yuan, 2011).

Next, using calcium imaging, whether there are light-induced functional modifications of LN(v)s was examined. Increased light exposure caused LN(v)s to be less responsive. Conversely, sensory deprivation in constant darkness increased LN(v)s' sensitivity to light. Thus, in contrast to stable synaptic responses observed in synaptic homeostasis, light-induced responses of central neurons postsynaptic to photoreceptors in the Drosophila larval visual circuit have a dynamic range, modifiable by sensory experiences and positively correlated to the dendrite length (Yuan, 2011).

In dunce¹, a loss-of-function mutant of the fly homolog of 3'5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase, the LN(v)s' dendrite length was comparable among LD, LL, and DD groups. Reducing dunce gene expression specifically in LN(v)s through RNA interference (dncIR) resulted in a similar indifference of LN(v)s' dendrite size to the light exposure, which implicated a cell-autonomous action of dunce in LN(v) neurons (Yuan, 2011).

To explore the possibility that the elevated cAMP level caused by the dunce mutation interfered with dendrite plasticity, tests were performed for the involvement of downstream components of the cAMP pathway, including the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PKAmc), which up-regulates cAMP signaling, and a dominant-negative form of the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREBdn), which inhibits cAMP-induced transcription activation. Expression of either transgene specifically in LN(v)s obliterated their ability to adjust dendrite length under different light-dark conditions. Calcium imaging further revealed that the expression of PKAmc or CREBdn eliminated changes of LN(v)s' light responses produced by different light-dark conditions. Thus, the cAMP pathway regulates both structural and functional plasticity of LN(v)s (Yuan, 2011).

The screen for mutants with defective LN(v) dendritic plasticity also identified babos-1, a mutant with a P-element insertion near the transcriptional start site of CG3624, a previously uncharacterized immunoglobulin domain-containing cell surface protein. The LN(v) dendrite length of babos-1 mutant larvae was comparable to controls in LD and LL but has no compensatory increase in DD. Similar phenotypes were found in larvae expressing an RNAi transgene targeting CG3624 in LN(v)s. Moreover, flies carrying a hypomorphic allele of CG3624, CG3624^[KG05061], also showed defective light-induced dendritic plasticity, which was fully rescued by expressing the UAS-CG3624 transgene specifically in LN(v)s. Thus, the function of this immunoglobulin domain-containing protein in LN(v)s is important for the dendrite expansion in constant darkness (Yuan, 2011).

Bioinformatic analyses suggest that CG3624 is a cell surface protein containing an N-terminal signal peptide, extracellular immunoglobulin domains followed by a transmembrane helix, and a short C-terminal cytoplasmic tail. CG3624 is widely expressed in the nervous system throughout development. Its specific requirement for the adjustment of LN(v)s' dendrite length in constant darkness suggests that elevation or reduction of sensory inputs likely invokes separate mechanisms for compensatory modifications of central neuronal dendrites (Yuan, 2011).

A functioning nervous system must have the capacity for adaptive modifications while maintaining circuit stability. This study of the Drosophila larval visual circuit reveals large-scale, bidirectional structural adaptations in dendritic arbors invoked by different sensory exposure. Whereas the circuit remains functional with modified outputs, this type of homeostatic compensation may modify larval light sensitivity according to its exposure during development and could facilitate adaption of fly larvae toward altered light conditions, such as seasonal changes. The observations also suggest shared molecular machinery between homeostasis and the Hebbian plasticity with respect to the cAMP pathway and indicate the feasibility of genetic studies of experience-dependent neuronal plasticity in Drosophila (Yuan, 2011).

The incidence of reproductive diapause is a critical aspect of life history in overwintering insects from temperate regions. Much has been learned about the timing, physiology and genetics of diapause in a range of insects, but how the multiple changes involved in this and other photoperiodically regulated traits are interrelated is not well understood. This study performed quasinatural selection on reproduction under short photoperiods in a northern fly species, Drosophila montana, to trace the effects of photoperiodic selection on traits regulated by the photoperiodic timer and / or by a circadian clock system. Selection changed several traits associated with reproductive diapause, including the critical day length for diapause (CDL), the frequency of diapausing females under photoperiods that deviate from daily 24 h cycles and cold tolerance, towards the phenotypes typical of lower latitudes. However, selection had no effect on the period of free-running locomotor activity rhythm regulated by the circadian clock in fly brain. At a genomic level, selection induced extensive divergence between the selection and control line replicates in 16 gene clusters involved in signal transduction, membrane properties, immunologlobulins and development. These changes resembled ones detected between latitudinally divergent D. montana populations in the wild and involved SNP divergence associated with several genes linked with diapause induction. Overall, this study shows that photoperiodic selection for reproduction under short photoperiods affects diapause-associated traits without disrupting the central clock network generating circadian rhythms in fly locomotor activity (Kauranen, 2019).

Photoperiodic reproductive diapause is an essential part of female life cycle in several insect species living on high latitudes, where overwintering in reproductive stage involves high risks for survival and progeny production. The sensitive period (SP), during which photoperiodic cues can trigger the switch from direct development to diapause, can last from a few hours or days after emergence to the entire life span of females. Moreover, in some species, sexually mature females can enter post-reproductive diapause as a response to decreasing day length and/or temperature. The duration of SP for diapause induction and the females' ability to enter post-reproductive diapause at short day lengths in Drosophila montana strains was assessed from different latitudes in Europe, North America, and Japan. This study shows that the females of this species have a life-long SP and that they retain an ability to switch between reproduction and diapause as a response to back-and-forth changes in day length for at least 3 months. D. montana strains from different latitudes showed high variation in females' ability to enter post-reproductive diapause; females of the southern strains generally requiring longer time and/or lower temperature to enter this stage than those of the northern strains. Moreover, the proportion of females that switched to post-reproductive diapause in 3 weeks in short day conditions at 16 °C showed positive correlation with the critical day length (CDL) for diapause induction and the latitudinal and continental origin of the strains. Life-long SP increases females' flexibility to respond to short-term changes in environmental conditions and enables reproducing females to switch to post-reproductive diapause when the days get shorter and colder toward the autumn. This ability can play a major role in species phenology and should be taken into account in theoretical and empirical studies on insect adaptation to seasonal variation (Lankinen, 2022).

Circadian rhythms in adult eclosion of Drosophila are postulated to be regulated by a pair of coupled oscillators: one is the master clock that is light sensitive and temperature compensated and the other that is a slave oscillator whose period is temperature sensitive and whose phase is reflected in the overt behavior. Within this framework, it was reasoned that in populations of Drosophila melanogaster that have been artificially selected for highly divergent phases of eclosion rhythm, there may be changes in this network of the master-slave oscillator system, via changes in the temperature-sensitive oscillator and/or the coupling of the light- and temperature-sensitive oscillators. Light/dark cycles were used in conjunction with different constant ambient temperatures and two different amplitudes of temperature cycles in an overall cool or warm temperature and analyzed phases, gate width, and normalized amplitude of the rhythms in each of these conditions. The populations selected for eclosion in the morning (early flies) do not vary their phases with change in temperature regimes, whereas the populations selected for eclosion in the evening (late flies) show phase lability of up to ~5 h. These results imply a genetic correlation between timing of behavior and temperature sensitivity of the circadian clock (Abhilash, 2019).

One hypothesis for the function of sleep is that it serves as a mechanism to conserve energy. Recent studies have suggested that increased sleep can be an adaptive mechanism to improve survival under food deprivation in Drosophila melanogaster. To test the generality of this hypothesis, Sleep and its plastic response to starvation was compared in a temperate and tropical population of Drosophila melanogaster. Flies from the temperate population were found to be more starvation resistant, and it was hypothesized that they would engage in behaviors that are considered to conserve energy, including increased sleep and reduced movement. Surprisingly, temperate flies slept less and moved more when they were awake compared to tropical flies, both under fed and starved conditions, therefore sleep did not correlate with population-level differences in starvation resistance. In contrast, total sleep and percent change in sleep when starved were strongly positively correlated with starvation resistance within the tropical population, but not within the temperate population. Thus, unexpectedly complex relationships between starvation and sleep were observed that vary both within and across populations. These observations falsify the simple hypothesis of a straightforward relationship between sleep and energy conservation. The hypothesis that starvation is correlated with metabolic phenotypes was tested by investigating stored lipid and carbohydrate levels; stored metabolites were found to partially contributed towards variation starvation resistance. These findings demonstrate that the function of sleep under starvation can rapidly evolve on short timescales and raise new questions about the physiological correlates of sleep and the extent to which variation in sleep is shaped by natural selection (Sarikaya, 2020).

Lately, Drosophila has been favored as a model in sleep and circadian rhythm research due to its conserved mechanism and easily manageable operation. These studies have revealed the sophisticated parameters in whole-day sleep profiles of Drosophila, drawing connections between Drosophila sleep and human sleep. This study tested several sleep deprivation protocols (mechanical shakes and light interruptions) on Drosophila and delineated their influences on Drosophila sleep. A daytime light-deprivation protocol (DD) was applied mimicking jet-lag to screen drugs that alleviate sleep deprivation. Characteristically, classical sleep-aid compounds exhibited different forms of influence: phenobarbital and pentobarbital modified total sleep time, while melatonin only shortened the latency to sleep. Such results construct the basis for further research on sleep benefits in other treatments in Drosophila. Seven herb extracts were screened, and very diverse results were found regarding their effect on sleep regulation. For instance, Panax notoginseng and Withania somnifera extracts displayed potent influence on total sleep time, while Melissa officinalis increased the number of sleep episodes. By comparing these treatments, it was possible to rank drug potency in different aspects of sleep regulation. Notably, the presence of sleep difficulties in a Drosophila Alzheimer's disease (AD) model was confirmed with an overexpression of human Aβ, and clear differences were recognized between the portfolios of drug screening effects in AD flies and in the control group. Overall, potential drug candidates and receipts for sleep problems can be identified separately for normal and AD Drosophila populations, outlining Drosophila's potential in drug screening tests in other populations if combined with the use of other genetic disease tools (Wang, 2020).

Among the top 20 genes in this list, two genes stood out: Limostatin (Lst, CG8317), expression of which increased 1.67-fold after chronic isolation, and Drosulfakinin (Dsk), expression of which decreased 2.03-fold after chronic isolation. Limostatin is a decretin hormone that is induced by starvation and suppresses insulin release. Drosulfakinin, a satiety-inducing cholecystokinin-like peptide, is secreted when the animal is fed. As a signal of satiety, drosulfakinin is depleted under starvation conditions. A third gene, target of brain insulin (tobi), also showed significantly increased expression (1.76-fold) during chronic social isolation. tobi encodes an α-glucosidase that is regulated by Drosophila insulin and glucagon analogues. In addition, 7 of these top 20 genes and 32 of the total 214 candidate genes were previously identified as being regulated in Drosophila heads after 24 h of starvation. Thus, from a transcriptomic perspective, the brain of a fly maintained in chronic social isolation closely resembles the brain of a starving fly, despite continuous access to food. It was reasoned that such a 'starvation brain state' might broadly affect gene expression associated with metabolic processes. Massive changes in mitochondrial functions and oxidation-reduction processes could be direct consequences of starvation and/or elevated feeding (Li, 2021).

The activity recording capillary feeder (ARC) assay, a video recording capillary feeder (CAFE) assay that monitors sleep and feeding behaviours simultaneously and continuously in individual Drosophila, was used. ARC assays validated the isolation-induced sleep loss phenotype previously observed with DAM assays: daily total sleep, daytime sleep and ZT0-4 sleep were reduced significantly after 7 days of social isolation. In addition, nighttime sleep was also reduced, probably owing to higher sensitivity in detecting movements using the positional tracking method, or differences in chamber shape and food source between the ARC and DAM systems. As predicted from the gene expression profiling results, increased feeding was observed in socially isolated animals compared to their group-treated counterparts. Flies isolated for 7 days showed significant increases in total food consumption, daytime food consumption, nighttime food consumption and ZT0-4 food consumption in comparison to flies that were group-housed for 7 days. Thus, chronic social isolation induces a starvation state in Drosophila at the levels of both gene expression in the brain and behaviour (Li, 2021).

The altered feeding pattern produced by chronic social isolation is not merely a consequence of sleep loss, because several classic sleep mutants all exhibited normal feeding behaviour. In addition, acutely isolated flies did not show a strong increase in food consumption (Li, 2021).

The candidate gene Lst is normally induced by nutrient restriction in endocrine neurons in the corpora cardiaca. However, the RNA profiling experiment suggested that there could be a previously unknown brain source for LST production. A resource of high-resolution transcriptomes of 100 GAL4 driver lines suggested that cells labelled by the driver line NPF-GAL4 (NPF, neuropeptide F [the fly homologue of neuropeptide Y)] are likely to express LST. Using a monoclonal antibody against LST, co-localized LST immunoreactivity and NPF-GAL4-driven GFP signals were detected. Among six known neuronal clusters that express NPF, LST immunoreactivity appeared to be co-localized with NPF-GAL4-driven GFP signals at the dorsal stratum of the fan-shaped body (dorsal fan-shaped body, dFB) and in a cluster of small cell bodies in the dorsal brain. Neurons without known function that comprise this cluster of NPF cells were previously named P2. A recent study used a split-GAL4 driver, SS0020-split-GAL4 (abbreviated as P2-GAL4 below), to strongly label the majority of P2 neurons that showed positive immunoreactivity for LST and NPF22 (Li, 2021).

Notably, the projections of the P2 neurons overlapped with the axonal projections of the dFB neurons labelled by R23E10-GAL4, which suggests that P2 neurons might signal to sleep-promoting dFB neurons. At the cell body level, P2 neurons differ from the R23E10-GAL4 labelled cells. A MultiColor FlpOut (MCFO) approach was used to stochastically decorate individual neurons labelled by P2-GAL4, and it was found that they are fan-shaped body columnar neurons. The hemibrain connectome allowed determination that P2 neurons include, as a dominant constituent, the hDeltaK cell type—a columnar cell class, where each neuron has a stereotypical dendritic input in the ellipsoid body (EB) in addition to the FB innervation. hDeltaK cells exhibit extensive synaptic connections with a known subset of R23E10-GAL4-labelled sleep-promoting dFB neurons27 . On the basis of the above connectome data and existing evidence that NPF/NPY is involved in animal metabolism and stress responses, focus was placed on P2 neurons (Li, 2021).

To test whether P2 neurons contribute to sleep loss induced by chronic social isolation, these neurons were chronically silenced by expressing the inward-rectifying potassium channel Kir2.1 under the control of P2-GAL4. In flies carrying both P2-GAL4 and UAS-Kir2.1, chronic isolation no longer induced an altered sleep profile when compared to their group-housed counterparts. The cumulative relative frequency curve of daytime sleep bouts for socially isolated animals no longer climbed faster than that of group-reared animals. Raster plots of sleep bouts in individual flies showed little difference between chronically isolated and group-housed flies. No difference was found between isolated and group-housed animals for daily total sleep, daytime sleep, or ZT0-4 sleep. By contrast, in heterozygous parental control animals carrying either the P2-GAL4 or the UAS-Kir2.1 transgene, chronic social isolation robustly induced sleep loss. Temporally silencing P2 neurons using UAS-shibire^ts1 during group enrichment or social isolation did not block social isolation-induced sleep loss. Although isolated flies carrying both P2-GAL4 and UAS-Kir2.1 still showed some overconsumption of food, they no longer showed excessive food consumption for ZT0-4, and the total increase in daytime food consumption was much smaller than in parental controls (Li, 2021).

Using [Ca2+] imaging, it was found that the activity of P2 neurons was correlated with locomotor activity in both group-housed and isolated flies. One might expect that P2 neurons would be tonically more active in isolated flies than in group-housed flies, but this effect in baseline [Ca2+] levels could not be detected. Alternatively, it can be hypothesize that locomotion drives more P2 neuron total activity during 7 days of isolation than during 1 day of isolation (Li, 2021).

Therefore whether boosting activity in P2 neurons during acute social isolation (1 day) is sufficient to promote behavioural changes that resemble the effects of chronic social isolation (7 days) was measured. To activate P2 neurons, a Drosophila warmth-gated cation channel, UAS-dTRPA1, was expressed with P2-GAL4. The P2-GAL4-labelled neurons were activated by treating the flies at 28 °C during acute social isolation or group enrichment (1 day). Control experiments, using flies of the same genotype, were conducted by treating the flies at 22 °C during acute social isolation or group enrichment (1 day). Following these treatments, all flies were subsequently maintained at 22 °C for measurement of sleep or feeding behaviour. In animals carrying both P2-GAL4 and UAS-dTRPA1, there were significant interactions between temperature treatment and isolation status for total, daytime, and ZT0-4 sleep and food consumption: activation of P2 neurons during acute social isolation promoted significant sleep loss and excessive feeding, whereas activation of P2 neurons in group housing did not alter either sleep or feeding behaviour. In control experiments, no evidence was found for interactions between temperature treatment and isolation status in the heterozygous parental flies (Li, 2021).

Notably, P2 neurons are connected to the dFB neurons that are known to regulate sleep homeostasis and couple energy metabolism to sleep. Artificial activation of P2 neurons can produce a behavioural state that resembles the effects of chronic isolation after social isolation for a single day; however, activation of P2 neurons failed to produce these behaviours in the complete absence of social isolation. This indicates that both activity in P2 neurons and a status of being socially isolated are required to induce reduced sleep and increased feeding. Social isolation might be sensed by P2 neurons or elsewhere in the brain, but in either case appears to cause the activity of P2 neurons to be interpreted differently and thereby to generate novel behaviours. Downregulation of a secreted cytokine in a non-neural tissue, the fat body, suppresses sleep and promotes feeding in Drosophila. It would be interesting to determine whether these behavioural responses also depend on P2 neuronal activity (Li, 2021).

Modifications of feeding circuits appear to be crucial for the evolution of complex social behaviours. For example, in C. elegans, a single-residue difference in the neuropeptide Y receptors of naturally occurring strains determines whether the strains exhibit solitary or social feeding behaviour. As antibodies to neuropeptide F, the fly homologue of neuropeptide Y, label P2 neurons, future work may ascertain whether Drosophila's P2 neurons influence social patterns of feeding behaviour as well as mediating feeding and sleep responses to social isolation (Li, 2021).

In humans, social isolation promotes new emotional states that intensify with the passage of time. Sleep loss in Drosophila is a faithful readout of the duration of social isolation, and this allowed identification of specific patterns of gene and behavioural states that emerge as social isolation becomes chronic. This unexpected association between social isolation, sleep and metabolism in an insect model is reminiscent of the connection observed by social psychologists between loneliness, sleep difficulties and hyperphagia. Such robust findings in Drosophila suggest that studies of animal models might identify conserved brain states, genes, and neural circuits that are associated with social isolation (Li, 2021).

The cellular consequences of sleep loss are poorly characterized. In the pyramidal neurons of mouse frontal cortex this study found that mitochondria and secondary lysosomes occupy a larger proportion of the cytoplasm after chronic sleep restriction compared to sleep, consistent with increased cellular burden due to extended wake. For each morphological parameter the within-animal variance was high, suggesting that the effects of sleep and sleep loss vary greatly among neurons. However, the analysis was based on 4-5 mice/group and a single section/cell. this study applied serial block-face scanning electron microscopy to identify signatures of sleep and sleep loss in the Drosophila brain. Stacks of images were acquired and used to obtain full 3D reconstructions of the cytoplasm and nucleus of 263 Kenyon cells from adult flies collected after a night of sleep (S) or after 11 hours (SD11) or 35 hours (SD35) of sleep deprivation (9 flies/group). Relative to S flies, SD35 flies showed increased density of dark clusters of chromatin and of Golgi apparata and a trend increase in the percent of cell volume occupied by mitochondria, consistent with increased need for energy and protein supply during extended wake. Logistic regression models could assign each neuron to the correct experimental group with good accuracy, but in each cell nuclear and cytoplasmic changes were poorly correlated, and within-fly variance was substantial in all experimental groups. Together, these results support the presence of ultrastructural signatures of sleep and sleep loss but underscore the complexity of their effects at the single-cell level (Flores, 2022).

The master circadian clock generates 24-hour rhythms to orchestrate daily behavior, even running freely under constant conditions. Traditionally, the master clock is considered self-sufficient in sustaining free-running timekeeping via its cell-autonomous molecular clocks and interneuronal communications within the circadian neural network. This study found a set of bona fide ultradian oscillators in the Drosophila brain that support free-running timekeeping, despite being located outside the master clock circuit and lacking clock gene expression. These extra-clock electrical oscillators (xCEOs) generate cell-autonomous ultradian bursts, pacing widespread burst firing and promoting rhythmic resting membrane potentials in clock neurons via parallel monosynaptic connections. Silencing xCEOs disrupts daily electrical rhythms in clock neurons and impairs cycling of neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor, leading to the loss of free-running locomotor rhythms. Together, it is concluded that the master clock is not self-sufficient to sustain free-running behavior rhythms but requires additional endogenous inputs to the clock from the extra-clock ultradian brain oscillators (Tang, 2022).

Circadian clocks are highly conserved transcriptional regulators that control ~24 hr oscillations in gene expression, physiological function, and behavior. Circadian clocks exist in almost every tissue and are thought to control tissue-specific gene expression and function, synchronized by the brain clock. Many disease states are associated with loss of circadian regulation. How and when circadian clocks fail during pathogenesis remains largely unknown because it is currently difficult to monitor tissue-specific clock function in intact organisms. This study developed a method to directly measure the transcriptional oscillation of distinct neuronal and peripheral clocks in live, intact Drosophila; the method was termed Locally Activatable BioLuminescence, or LABL. Using this method, it was observed that specific neuronal and peripheral clocks exhibit distinct transcriptional properties. Loss of the receptor for PDF, a circadian neurotransmitter critical for the function of the brain clock, disrupts circadian locomotor activity but not all tissue-specific circadian clocks. While peripheral clocks in non-neuronal tissues were less stable after the loss of PDF signaling, they continued to oscillate. It was also demonstrated that distinct clocks exhibit differences in their loss of oscillatory amplitude or their change in period, depending on their anatomical location, mutation, or fly age. These results demonstrate that LABL is an effective tool that allows rapid, affordable, and direct real-time monitoring of individual clocks in vivo (Johnstone, 2022).

Photic history, including the relative duration of day versus night in a 24-hour cycle, is known to influence subsequent circadian responses to light in mammals. Whether such modulation is present in Drosophila is currently unknown. This study constructed the first high-resolution Drosophila seasonal atlas for light-induced circadian phase-resetting. Testing the light responses of over 4,000 Drosophila at 120 timepoints across 5 seasonally-relevant rectangular photoperiods (i.e., LD 8:16, 10:14, 12:12, 14:10, and 16:8; 24 hourly intervals surveyed in each), it was determined that many aspects of the fly circadian PRC waveform are conserved with increasing daylength. Surprisingly though, irrespective of LD schedule, the start of the PRCs always remained anchored to the timing of subjective sunset, creating a differential overlap of the advance zone with the morning hours after subjective sunrise that was maximized under summer photoperiods and minimized under winter photoperiods. These data suggest that there may be differences in flies versus mammals as to how the photoperiod modulates the waveform and amplitude of the circadian PRC to light. On the other hand, they support the possibility that the lights-off transition determines the phase-positioning of photic PRCs across seasons and across species. More work is necessary to test this claim and whether it might factor into the timing of seasonal light responses in humans (Dollish, 2022).

Rapid technology development, exposure to gadgets, and artificial lights (with different monochromes) have disturbed lifestyles and the circadian clock, which otherwise confers better regulation of behavioral patterns and sleep/wake cycles in most organisms including Drosophila melanogaster. This study assayed the effect of LD12:12 hr (light: dark) monochromatic lights (violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red) on the lifespan, activity, and sleep of the D. melanogaster. A shortened lifespan was observed under 12h of violet, blue, green, and yellow lights, while significantly reduced activity levels under the light phase of blue and green light as compared to their dark phase is observed. Significant increase in the evening anticipation index of flies under blue and green light alongside increased and decreased sleep depth during the day and night respectively suggests the light avoidance, while there is no effect of colored light on the waking time, daily active time, and sleep time. Thus, this study shows short and long-term exposure to certain colored lights in terms of reduced lifespan and locomotor activity, which cause qualitative as well as quantitative changes in the sleep of flies; probably as a sign of aversion towards a specific light (Krittika, 2022).

Virtually every single living organism on Earth shows a circadian (i.e. "approximately a day") internal rhythm that is coordinated with planet rotation (i.e. 24 hours). External cues synchronize the central clock of the organism. Consequences of biological rhythm disruptions have been extensively studied on cancer. Still, mechanisms underlying these alterations, and how they favor tumor development remain largely unknown. This study shows that glioblastoma-induced neurodegeneration also causes circadian alterations in Drosophila. Preventing neurodegeneration in all neurons by genetic means reestablishes normal biological rhythms. Interestingly, in early stages of tumor development, the central pacemaker lengthens its period, whereas in later stages this is severely disrupted. The re-adjustment of the external light:dark period to longer glioblastoma-induced internal rhythms delays glioblastoma progression and ameliorates associated deleterious effects, even after the tumor onset (Jarabo, 2022).

Previous investigations in humans and rodent animal models have assessed the interplay of sleep in the circadian system's phase responses to nighttime light exposure. The resulting data have been mixed, but generally support a modulatory role for sleep in circadian photic resetting (not an absolute requirement). Drosophila have been historically used to provide important insights in the sleep and circadian sciences. However, no experiments to date have evaluated how immediate sleep need or recent sleep history affects their pacemaker's phase readjustments to light. We did so in the current study by (1) forcing separate groups of animals to stay awake for 1 or 4 h after they were shown a broadspectrum pulse (15 min during the first half of the night, 950 lux), or (2) placing them on a restricted sleep schedule for a week before light presentation without any subsequent sleep disruption. Forced sleep restriction, whether acute or chronic, did not alter the size of light-induced phase shifts. These data are consistent with observations made in other diurnal animals and raise the possibility, more broadly, that phototherapies applied during sleep-such as may be necessary during the winter months-may still be efficacious in individuals experiencing sleep-continuity problems such as insomnia (Negelspach, 2022).

It is well established that pheromones are used by insects to transmit information between individuals. However, research has revealed that individual insects can be both the sender and the receiver of some pheromonal signals. It is therefore interesting to consider whether the pheromonal state of an individual insect can exert an effect on itself. This study monitored the sleep activity of single flies exhibiting a mutation that leads to pheromonal deficiency and found that cuticular hydrocarbons (CHs) exerted self-regulatory effects on the amount of sleep experienced by these flies. To identify the physiological significance of this mechanism, the amounts of sleep were compared in individual young flies and individual old flies (flies are known to sleep less as they get older), and this data was compared with young and old flies exhibiting mutations that lead to CH reception defects. The differences in the amount of sleep experienced by young and old mutant flies were significantly lower than those of the control flies. These data show that hydrocarbon signals produced by the cuticle in Drosophila can be self-perceived and regulate the amount of sleep acquired in a maturation-dependent manner (Wu, 2022).

People tend to fall asleep when gently rocked or vibrated. Experimental studies have shown that rocking promotes sleep in humans and mice. However, the mechanisms underlying the phenomenon are not well understood. A habituation model proposes that habituation, a form of non-associative learning, mediates sleep induction by monotonous stimulation. This study showed that gentle vibration promotes sleep in Drosophila in part through habituation. Vibration-induced sleep (VIS) leads to increased homeostatic sleep credit and reduced arousability, and can be suppressed by heightened arousal or reduced GABA signaling. Multiple mechanosensory organs mediate VIS, and the magnitude of VIS depends on vibration frequency and genetic background. Sleep induction improves over successive blocks of vibration. Furthermore, training with continuous vibration does not generalize to intermittent vibration, demonstrating stimulus specificity, a characteristic of habituation. These findings suggest that habituation plays a significant role in sleep induction by vibration (Ozturk-Colak, 2020).

The importance of sleep in maintaining cognitive functions such as learning and memory has been reported in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Previous studies demonstrated that sleep deprivation impaired the olfactory memory retention of fruit flies as described in the classical conditioning paradigm. This study shows that sleep deprivation leads to a preference for the odours of the rearing environment in Drosophila melanogaster. Flies whose sleep had been disturbed with periodic rotation stimuli during night-time preferred apple cider vinegar (ACV) to broth, while this preference was lower in flies without sleep deprivation and those rotated during daytime. Experiments using single odours showed an increase in responses to ACV due to sleep deprivation. These results suggest that sleep functions in food odour preference. Flies grown on medium supplemented with ACV showed greater preference for ACV, and those grown with broth supplementation showed a greater preference for broth under sleep-deprived conditions. These results suggest that flies with night-time sleep deprivation become attached to the environment on which they have developed, and that sleep contributes to preference for novel food odours. This study offers an approach to investigating the interaction between sleep and neural disorders concerning cognitive deficits towards novel stimuli (Tanizawa, 20021).

Photoperiod is one of the most reliable seasonal cues that organisms can use to prepare for upcoming environmental changes. Evidence suggests that exposure to different photoperiod can activate plastic responses in stress resistance traits, while there is limited evidence on the plastic response induced by daily progressive cumulative changes in photoperiod. This study assayed the effect of within generation daily uni-directional and cumulative changes in photoperiod on stress resistance and life history traits in four Drosophila species. It was predicted that daily increasing photoperiod, mimicking upcoming summer conditions, should lead to an increase in heat resistance and establish trade-offs with other fitness related traits. On the other hand, it was predicted that daily decreasing photoperiod should reflect upcoming winter conditions leading to an increase in cold resistance. It was found that within genreation changes in photoperiod had a significant effect on life history and stress resistance traits in the four Drosophila species. The observed response was different across species, with D. melanogaster showing five out of six studied traits affected, while in D. mercatorum only one trait was significantly affected. The exposure to changing photoperiod led to an increased upper thermal resistance in D. melanogaster and D. mercatorum and a decreased lower thermal resistance in D. melanogaster and D. simulans, as well as a decreased starvation and desiccation resistance in D. virilis. The developmental time was shorter when flies were exposed to the two photoperiod regimes compared to constant day length control in D. melanogaster and D. simulans. A limited effect was observed on egg-to-adult-viability and desiccation resistance. The results of this study show that daily change in photoperiod induced a plastic response in different traits of drosophilids, suggesting that this environmental parameter needs to be carefully considered in evolutionary studies (Manenti, 2021).

With the rapid development of science and technology, 5G technology will be widely used, and biosafety concerns about the effects of 5G radiofrequency radiation on health have been raised. Drosophila melanogaster was selected as the model organism for this study, in which a 3.5 GHz radiofrequency radiation (RF-EMR) environment was simulated at intensities of 0.1 W/m(2), 1 W/m(2), and 10 W/m(2). The activity of parent male and offspring (F1) male flies was measured using a Drosophila activity monitoring system under short-term and long-term 3.5 GHz RF-EMR exposure. Core genes associated with heat stress, the circadian clock and neurotransmitters were detected by QRT-PCR technology, and the contents of GABA and glutamate were detected by UPLC-MS. The results show that short-term RF-EMR exposure increased the activity level and reduced the sleep duration while long-term RF-EMR exposure reduced the activity level and increased the sleep duration of F1 male flies. Under long-term RF-EMR, the expression of heat stress response-related hsp22, hsp26 and hsp70 genes was increased, the expression of circadian clock-related per, cyc, clk, cry, and tim genes was altered, the content of GABA and glutamate was reduced, and the expression levels of synthesis, transport and receptor genes were altered. In conclusion, long-term RF-EMR exposure enhances the heat stress response of offspring flies and then affects the expression of circadian clock and neurotransmitter genes, which leads to decreased activity, prolonged sleep duration, and improved sleep quality (Wang, 2021).

Sleep is plastic and is influenced by ecological factors and environmental changes. The mechanisms underlying sleep plasticity are not well understood. This study shows that manipulations that impair flight in Drosophila increase sleep as a form of sleep plasticity. Flight was disrupted by blocking the wing-expansion program, genetically disrupting flight, and by mechanical wing perturbations. A new sleep regulatory circuit is defined starting with specific wing sensory neurons, their target projection neurons in the ventral nerve cord, and the neurons they connect to in the central brain. In addition, a critical neuropeptide (Burs) and its receptor (Rickets) were identified that link wing expansion and sleep. Disrupting flight activates these sleep-promoting projection neurons, as indicated by increased cytosolic calcium levels, and stably increases the number of synapses in their axonal projections. These data reveal an unexpected role for flight in regulating sleep and provide new insight into how sensory processing controls sleep need (Melnattur, 2020).

Taken together, these results confirm that in Drosophila, altering membrane excitability mainly affects the output of pacemaker cells and thus intercellular communication, as is the case in the eye of the mollusk Bulla and the rodent SCN, highlighting the degree of conservation in the mechanisms underlying the biological clock in distant organisms (Depetris-Chauvin, 2011).

Additionally, TPR may provide feedback to circadian pacemakers. Ambient temperature fluctuations can entrain not only peripheral clocks in mammals and flies but also circadian pacemaker neurons in the fly brain, which contribute to morning and evening locomotor activity. Because TPR can generate temperature fluctuations in the fly body, the output of TPR may thus reinforce or refine circadian rhythm entrainment. For circadian locomotor behavior, the DN2s could actually participate in the reinforcement, because in the larval brain the DN2s help the sLNvs entraining to temperature cycles. Therefore, by further exploring this newly discovered circadian rhythm, Drosophila TPR might not only help understanding the mechanisms underlying body temperature control in animals but also contribute to a greater understanding of circadian rhythm's mammalian CSLs plasticity (Kaneko, 2012).

This study shows that nocte¹ flies exhibit significantly reduced siesta sleep (ZT3-ZT9) during the warm phase of combined TC and LD cycles-a condition disrupting molecular synchronization in the DN1. Although this study did not directly address a role for nocte in regulating DN1 function in sleep, these results are in line with a sleep-promoting function for the DN1s below 30°C. In the absence of light cues (TCs in DD), wild-type flies gradually initiate a period of inactivity and sleep during the warm phase starting after ZT6 and reaching peak inactivity and sleep levels toward the end of the warm phase at ZT10. During this interval (ZT6-ZT10) nocte¹ flies show the exact opposite behavior and drastically decrease their sleep levels. This points again to a sleep-supporting role for the DN1s, in line with the results obtained for combined LD and TC synchronization and results by Yadlapalli (2018) showing that the DN1s promote sleep during ramped TCs. It is proposed that, in nocte¹ flies, DN1 activity is altered during TCs, resulting in impaired behavioral and molecular synchronization, as well as in a reduced ability to repress activity promoting clock neurons (Chen, 2018).

Human body temperature increases during wakefulness and decreases during sleep. The body temperature rhythm (BTR) is a robust output of the circadian clock and is fundamental for maintaining homeostasis, such as generating metabolic energy and sleep, as well as entraining peripheral clocks in mammals. However, the mechanisms that regulate BTR are largely unknown. Drosophila are ectotherms, and their body temperatures are close to ambient temperature; therefore, flies select a preferred environmental temperature to set their body temperature. This study identified a novel circadian output, the temperature preference rhythm (TPR), in which the preferred temperature in flies increases during the day and decreases at night. TPR, thereby, produces a daily BTR. Fly TPR shares many features with mammalian BTR. Diuretic hormone 31 receptor (DH31R) was found to mediates Drosophila TPR, and the closest mouse homolog of DH31R, calcitonin receptor (Calcr), is essential for mice BTR. Importantly, both TPR and BTR are regulated in a distinct manner from locomotor activity rhythms, and neither DH31R nor Calcr regulates locomotor activity rhythms. These findings suggest that DH31R/Calcr is an ancient and specific mediator of BTR. Thus, understanding fly TPR will provide fundamental insights into the molecular and neural mechanisms that control BTR in mammals (Goda, 2019).

Circadian clocks are characterized by three properties: they run in constant conditions with a period of ∼24 h, synchronize to the environmental cycles of light and temperature, and are temperature compensated, meaning they do not speed up with temperature. Central brain clocks regulate daily activity rhythms, whereas peripheral clocks are dispersed throughout the body of insects and vertebrates. Using a set of luciferase reporter genes, this study shows that Drosophila peripheral clocks are self-sustained but over-compensated, i.e., they slow down with increasing temperature. In contrast, central clock neurons in the fly brain, both in intact flies and in cultured brains, show accurate temperature compensation. Although this suggests that neural network properties contribute to temperature compensation, the circadian neuropeptide Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF) is not required for temperature-compensated oscillations in brain clock neurons. These findings reveal a fundamental difference between central and peripheral clocks, which likely also applies for vertebrate clocks (Versteven, 2020).

The Drosophila circadian pacemaker consists of transcriptional feedback loops subjected to post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation. While post-translational regulatory mechanisms have been studied in detail, much less is known about circadian post-transcriptional control. Thus, this study targeted 364 RNA binding and RNA associated proteins with RNA interference. Among the 43 hits that were identified was the alternative splicing regulator P-element somatic inhibitor (PSI). PSI regulates the thermosensitive alternative splicing of timeless (tim), promoting splicing events favored at warm temperature over those increased at cold temperature. Psi downregulation shortens the period of circadian rhythms and advances the phase of circadian behavior under temperature cycle. Interestingly, both phenotypes were suppressed in flies that could produce TIM proteins only from a transgene that cannot form the thermosensitive splicing isoforms. Therefore, it is concluded that PSI regulates the period of Drosophila circadian rhythms and circadian behavior phase during temperature cycling through its modulation of the tim splicing pattern (Foley, 2019).

Increasing evidence indicates that post-transcriptional mechanisms controlling gene expression are also critical for the proper function of circadian clocks in many organisms. In Drosophila, the post-transcriptional regulation of per mRNA has been best studied. per mRNA stability changes as a function of time. In addition, per contains an intron in its 3'UTR (dmpi8) that is alternatively spliced depending on temperature and lighting conditions. On cold days, the spliced variant is favored, causing an advance in the accumulation of per transcript levels as well as an advance of the evening activity peak. This behavioral shift means that the fly is more active during the day when the temperature would be most tolerable in their natural environment. The temperature sensitivity of dmpi8 is due to the presence of weak non-canonical splice sites. However, the efficiency of the underlying baseline splicing is affected by four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the per 3'UTR that vary in natural populations and form two distinct haplotypes. Also, while this splicing is temperature-sensitive in two Drosophila species that followed human migration, two species that remained in Africa lack temperature sensitivity of dmpi8 splicing. Furthermore, it has been recently demonstrated that the the trans-acting splicing factor B52 enhances dmpi8 splicing efficiency, and this effect is stronger with one of the two haplotypes. per is also regulated post-transcriptionally by the TWENTYFOUR-ATAXIN2 translational activation complex. This complex works by binding to per mRNA as well as the cap-binding complex and poly-A binding protein. This may enable more efficient translation by promoting circularization of the transcript. Interestingly, this mechanism appears to be required only in the circadian pacemaker neurons. Non-canonical translation initiation has also been implicated in the control of PER translation. Regulation of PER protein translation has also been studied in mammals, with RBM4 being a critical regulator of mPER1 expression. In flies however, the homolog of RBM4, LARK, regulates the translation of DBT, a PER kinase. miRNAs have emerged as important critical regulators of circadian rhythms in Drosophila and mammals, affecting the circadian pacemaker itself, as well as input and output pathways controlling rhythmic behavioral and physiological processes (Foley, 2019).

RNA-associated proteins (RAPs) include proteins that either bind directly or indirectly to RNAs. They mediate post-transcriptional regulation at every level. Many of these regulated events - including alternative splicing, splicing efficiency, mRNA stability, and translation - have been shown to function in molecular clocks. Thus, to obtain a broad view of the Drosophila circadian RAP landscape and its mechanism of action, an RNAi screen was performed targeting 364 of these proteins. This led to the discovery of a role for the splicing factor P-element somatic inhibitor (PSI) in regulating the pace of the molecular clock through alternative splicing of tim (Foley, 2019).

The results identify a novel post-transcriptional regulator of the circadian clock: PSI. PSI is required for the proper pace of both brain and body clock, and for proper phase-relationship with ambient temperature cycles. When Psi is downregulated, the circadian pacemaker speeds up and behavior phase under temperature cycles is advanced by 3 hr, and these phenotypes appear to be predominantly caused by an abnormal tim splicing pattern. Indeed, the circadian period and behavior phase of flies that can only produce functional TIM protein from a transgene missing most introns is insensitive to Psi downregulation. It is noted however that cwo's splicing pattern is also affected by Psi downregulation, and sgg splicing pattern was not studied, although it might also be controlled by PSI. It is therefore not possible to exclude a small contribution of non-tim splicing events to PSI downregulation phenotypes, or that in specific tissues these other splicing events play a greater role than in the brain (Foley, 2019).

Interestingly, Psi downregulation results in an increase in intron inclusion events that are favored under cold conditions (tim-sc and tim-cold), while an intron inclusion event favored under warm conditions is decreased (tim-M). However, the ability of tim splicing to respond to temperature changes is not abolished when Psi is downregulated. This could imply that an as yet unknown factor specifically promotes or represses tim splicing events in a temperature-dependent manner. Another possibility is that the strength of splice sites or tim's pre-mRNA structure impacts splicing efficiency in a temperature-dependent manner. For example, suboptimal per splicing signals explain the lower efficiency of per's most 3' splicing event at warm temperature (Foley, 2019).

How would the patterns of tim splicing affect the pace of the circadian clock, or advance the phase of circadian behavior under temperature cycles? In all splicing events that were studied, intron retention results in a truncated TIM protein. It is therefore possible that the balance of full length and truncated TIM proteins, which may function as endogenous dominant-negatives, determines circadian period. For example, truncated TIM might be less efficient at protecting PER from degradation, thus accelerating the pacemaker, or affecting its phase. Consistent with this idea, overexpression of the shorter cold-favored tim isoform (tim-sc) shortens period. Strikingly, Psi downregulation increases this isoform's levels and also results in a short phenotype. It has been proposed that production of tim-M transcripts (called tim-tiny in their study) delays the rate of TIM accumulation. Such a mechanism could also contribute to the short period observed when Psi is downregulated, since this reduces tim-M levels, which may accelerate TIM accumulation. Another interesting question is how PSI differentially affects specific splice isoforms of tim. One possibility is that the execution of a specific tim splicing event negatively influences the probability of the occurrence of other splicing events. For example, PSI could downregulate tim-sc and tim-cold by enhancing splicing and removal of the introns whose retention is necessary for production of these isoforms. This could indirectly reduce splicing of the intron that is retained in the warm tim-M isoform and result in tim-M upregulation. Conversely, PSI could directly promote tim-M intron retention and indirectly downregulate production of tim-sc and tim-cold (Foley, 2019).

Other splicing factors have been shown to be involved in the control of circadian rhythms in Drosophila. SRm160 contributes to the amplitude of circadian rhythms by promoting per expression, while B52/SMp55 and PRMT5 regulate per's most 3' splicing, which is temperature sensitive. Loss of PRMT5 results in essentially arrhythmic behavior, but this is unlikely to be explained by its effect on per's thermosensitive splicing. B52/SMp55 knockdown flies show a reduced siesta, which is controlled by the same per splicing. With the identification of Psi, this study has uncover a key regulator of tim alternative splicing pattern and shows that this pattern determines circadian period length, while per alternative splicing regulates the timing and amplitude of the daytime siesta. Interestingly, a recent study identified PRP4 kinase and other members of tri-snRNP complexes as regulators of circadian rhythms. Downregulation of prp4 caused excessive retention of the tim-M intron. PSI and PRP4 might thus have complementary functions in tim mRNA splicing regulation, working together to maintain the proper balance of tim isoform expression (Foley, 2019).

An unexpected finding is the role played by both PDF neurons and other circadian neurons in the short period phenotype observed with circadian locomotor rhythms when Psi was knocked-down. Indeed, it is quite clear from multiple studies that under constant darkness, the PDF-positive sLNvs dictate the pace of circadian behavior. Why, in the case of Psi downregulation, do PDF negative neurons also play a role in period determination? The explanation might be that PSI alters the hierarchy between circadian neurons, promoting the role of PDF negative neurons. This could be achieved by weakening PDF/PDFR signaling, for example (Foley, 2019).

While this study focused on PSI, several other interesting candidates were identified in the screen. The presence of a large number of splicing factors is noted. This adds to the emerging notion that alternative splicing plays a critical role in the control of circadian rhythms. Several per splicing regulators have been mentioned that can impact circadian behavior. In addition, a recent study demonstrated that specific classes of circadian neurons express specific alternative splicing variants, and rhythmic alternative splicing is widespread in these neurons. Interestingly, in this study, the splicing regulator barc, which was identified in the screen and which has been shown to causes intron retention in specific mRNAs, was found to be rhythmically expressed in LNds. Moreover, in mammals, alternative splicing appears to be very sensitive to temperature, and could explain how body temperature rhythms synchronize peripheral clocks. Another intriguing candidate is cg42458, which was found to be enriched in circadian neurons (LNvs and Dorsal Neurons 1). In addition to emphasizing the role of splicing, the screen suggests that regulation of polyA tail length is important for circadian rhythmicity, since several members of the CCR4-NOT complex and deadenylation-dependent decapping enzymes were identified. Future work will be required to determine whether these factors directly target mRNAs encoding for core clock components, or whether their effect on circadian period is indirect. Interestingly, the POP2 deadenylase, which is part of the CCR4-NOT complex, was recently shown to regulate tim mRNA levels post-transcriptionally. It should be noted that while the screen targeted 364 proteins binding or associated with RNA, it did not include all of them. For example, LSM12, which was recently shown to be a part of the ATXN2/TYF complex, was not included in the screen because it had not been annotated as a potential RAP when the screen was initiated (Foley, 2019).

In summary, this work provides an important resource for identifying RNA associated proteins regulating circadian rhythms in Drosophila. It identifies PSI is an important regulator of circadian period and circadian phase in response to thermal cycles, and points at additional candidates and processes that determine the periodicity of circadian rhythms (Foley, 2019).

Mosquitoes exhibit activity rhythms, crucial for the transmission of pathogens, under the control of a circadian clock. Aedes aegypti is one of the world's leading vectors. For decades, several studies have linked the rise in ambient temperature with the increase in their activity. This study identified candidate genes whose expression is influenced by temperature cycles and may affect Aedes locomotor activity. timeless completely lost its rhythmic expression in light/dark, with out-of-phase temperature cycles, and by RNAi mediated knockdown of nocte, an important gene for Drosophila circadian synchronization by temperature cycles. Thus, timeless and nocte are important genes for synchronization by temperature cycles in Aedes aegypti. To reinforce these findings, the gradual temperature fluctuations that were as close as possible to daily temperature variations in Brazil were simulated in the laboratory. It was observed that the activity and the expression of the molecular circadian clock of Ae. aegypti differs significantly from that of mosquitoes subjected to constant or rectangular abrupt changes in temperature. It is suggested that for understanding the circadian behavior of Aedes with possible implications for intervention strategies, the seminatural paradigm needs to replace the traditional laboratory study (Teles-de-Freitas, 2020).

Circadian rhythms are based on biochemical oscillations generated by clock genes/proteins, which independently evolved in animals, fungi, plants, and cyanobacteria. Temperature compensation of the oscillation speed is a common feature of the circadian clocks, but the evolutionary-conserved mechanism has been unclear. This study shows that Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX) mediates cold-responsive Ca(2+) signaling important for the temperature-compensated oscillation in mammalian cells. In response to temperature decrease, NCX elevates intracellular Ca(2+), which activates Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and accelerates transcriptional oscillations of clock genes. The cold-responsive Ca(2+) signaling is conserved among mice, Drosophila, and Arabidopsis. The mammalian cellular rhythms and Drosophila behavioral rhythms were severely attenuated by NCX inhibition, indicating essential roles of NCX in both temperature compensation and autonomous oscillation. NCX also contributes to the temperature-compensated transcriptional rhythms in cyanobacterial clock. These results suggest that NCX-mediated Ca(2+) signaling is a common mechanism underlying temperature-compensated circadian rhythms both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes (Kon, 2021).

Circadian TTFLs are an elaborate system that drives a wide range of overt rhythms with various phase angles and amplitudes. The oscillation speed of the TTFLs is temperature compensated, although many of the biochemical reactions in TTFLs are slowed down by decreasing temperature. This study demonstrates that the temperature compensation of the TTFL in mammalian cells was compromised when Ca2+-dependent phosphorylation signaling was inhibited. An important role was found for NCX-CaMKII activity as the state variable of the circadian oscillator. This present study and a series of preceding works demonstrate that the Ca2+ oscillator plays essential roles in the circadian oscillation mechanism. Functional studies clearly demonstrated essential roles of NCX-dependent Ca2+ signaling in the three important properties of the circadian clock, i.e., cell-autonomous oscillation, temperature compensation, and entrainment. The circadian Ca2+ oscillation is observed in mice lacking Bmal1 or Cry1/Cry2, implicating that the Ca2+ oscillator is an upstream regulator of the TTFL in mammals (Kon, 2021).

The effects of NCX2 and NCX3 deficiencies on the regulation of mouse behavioral rhythms suggest involvement of Na+/Ca2+ exchanging activity in the Ca2+ dynamics of the SCN. Previous studies showed that L-type Ca2+ channel (LTCC) and voltage-gated Na+ channel (VGSC) are required for high-amplitude Ca2+ rhythms in the SCN. Because NCX activities are regulated by local concentrations of Na+/Ca2+ and the membrane potential, cooperative actions of LTCC, VGSC, and NCX seem to play important roles in generation mechanism of the robust Ca2+ oscillations in the SCN (Kon, 2021).

It should be emphasized that the role of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases is conserved among clockworks in insects, fungi, and plants, suggesting that the Ca2+ oscillator might be a core timekeeping mechanism in their common ancestor (see Involvement of ancient Ca2+ signaling for temperature-compensated circadian rhythms). After divergence of each lineage, a subset of clock genes should have independently evolved in association with the Ca2+ oscillator. It is noteworthy that NCX is also required for temperature compensation of PTO-based cyanobacterial clock. Because intracellular Ca2+ in cyanobacteria is elevated in response to temperature decrease, YrbG-mediated Ca2+ signaling may regulate the PTO in vivo. Conservation of NCX among eukaryotes, eubacteria, and archaea suggests that NCX-dependent temperature signaling is essential for adaptation of a wide variety of organisms to environment. Further studies on NCX-regulated Ca2+ flux will provide evolutionary insights into the origin of the circadian clocks (Kon, 2021).

Circadian rhythms optimize health by coordinating the timing of physiological processes to match predictable daily environmental challenges. The circadian rhythm of body temperature is thought to be an important modulator of molecular clocks in peripheral tissues, but how daily temperature cycles impact physiological function is unclear. This study examined the effect of constant (25°C, T(CON)) and cycling (28°C/22°C during light/dark, T(CYC)) temperature paradigms on lifespan of Drosophila melanogaster, and the expression of clock genes, Heat shock protein 83 (Hsp83), Frost (Fst), and Senescence-associated protein 30 (smp-30). Male and female Drosophila housed at T(CYC) had longer median lifespans than those housed at T(CON) T(CYC) induced robust Hsp83 rhythms and rescued the age-related decrease in smp-30 expression that was observed in flies at T(CON), potentially indicating an increased capacity to cope with age-related cellular stress. Ageing under T(CON) led to a decrease in the amplitude of expression of all clock genes in the bodies of male flies, except for cyc, which was non-rhythmic, and for per and cry in female flies. Strikingly, housing under T(CYC) conditions rescued the age-related decrease in amplitude of all clock genes, and generated rhythmicity in cyc expression, in the male flies, but not the female flies. The results suggest that ambient temperature rhythms modulate Drosophila lifespan, and that the amplitude of clock gene expression in peripheral body clocks may be a potential link between temperature rhythms and longevity in male Drosophila Longevity due to T(CYC) appeared predominantly independent of clock gene amplitude in female Drosophila (Goh, 2021).

Sleep is an essential and evolutionarily conserved behavior that is modulated by many environmental factors. Ambient temperature shifting usually occurs during climatic or seasonal change or travel from high-latitude area to low-latitude area that affects animal physiology. Increasing ambient temperature modulates sleep in both humans and Drosophila. Although several thermosensory molecules and neurons have been identified, the neural mechanisms that integrate temperature sensation into the sleep neural circuit remain poorly understood. This study reveals that prolonged increasing of ambient temperature induces a reversible sleep reduction and impaired sleep consolidation in Drosophila via activating the internal thermosensory anterior cells (ACs). ACs form synaptic contacts with a subset of posterior dorsal neuron 1 (DN1p) neurons and release acetylcholine to promote wakefulness. Furthermore, this study identified that this subset of DN1ps promotes wakefulness by releasing CNMamide (CNMa) neuropeptides to inhibit the Dh44-positive pars intercerebralis (PI) neurons through CNMa receptors. This study demonstrates that the AC-DN1p-PI neural circuit is responsible for integrating thermosensory inputs into the sleep neural circuit. Moreover, the CNMa signaling pathway was identified as a newly recognized wakefulness-promoting DN1 pathway (Jin, 2021).

Sleep is an essential and evolutionarily conserved behavior across species and it is critical for synaptic plasticity, learning and memory, neuronal development, and metabolite clearance in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Sleep is a reversible status characterized by quiescence and an increased arousal threshold which is modulated by many environmental factors. Among these, temperature shifting is a common and essential factor that is associated with climatic or seasonal change or travel from high-latitude area to low-latitude area to affect the physiology of all animals. In humans, increased ambient temperature influences sleep patterns and correlates with reductions in rapid eye movement sleep. In Drosophila, numerous studies have shown that increasing ambient temperature modifies sleep architecture. However, how thermosensory input integrates into the sleep neural circuit remains unclear (Jin, 2021).

Drosophila melanogaster is sensitive to temperature, and several thermosensory molecules with different temperature sensitivities have been identified, including TRPA1, Gr28b, Pyrexia, and Painless. Moreover, internal and external thermosensory neurons have also been identified in the brain and in the antenna. These thermosensory pathways enable Drosophila to adapt behavioral responses to attractive or noxious temperatures. Drosophila also exhibits sleep-like behavior and have been used to dissect the neural mechanism that regulates sleep as well as the neurobiological function of sleep. Dorsal neuron 1 (DN1) neurons include several subsets with distinct anatomical projection patterns that play distinct roles in waking and sleep behaviors. Recent studies have shown that DN1 neurons receive environmental temperature inputs. Thus, DN1 neurons might be a critical site to integrate various thermosensory inputs into the sleep neural circuit (Jin, 2021).

This study shows that thermal-sensing anterior cell (AC) neurons monitor ambient temperature shifting and release acetylcholine (ACh) to promote wakefulness. This study demonstrates that the AC-DN1p-pars intercerebralis (PI) neural circuit integrates thermosensory inputs to promote wakefulness. Moreover, this study identified the CNMamide (CNMa) signaling as a newly recognized wakefulness-promoting signaling (Jin, 2021).

Sleep is a reversible status characterized by quiescence and an increased arousal threshold. Thus, animals exhibit reduced alertness to risks during sleep. The increasing of ambient temperature usually occurs during climatic or seasonal change, but the excessively high temperature is fatal to animals. Increasing ambient temperature modifies sleep architecture, prolongs the latency for sleep onset, and reduces nighttime sleep. Warmth-induced wakefulness ensures that Drosophila increases their alertness to avoid fatal harm during ambient temperature shifting. It has been shown that increasing ambient temperature prolonged daytime sleep onset and increased total day sleep time and characterized the mechanism of warmth-induced morning wakefulness. This study characterized the effects of increased ambient temperature on nighttime sleep reduction and identified the circuit and molecular mechanisms of warmth-induced nighttime sleep reduction (Jin, 2021).

Internal thermosensory AC neurons, expressing TRPA1 channels, have been shown to set preferred temperature before dawn and to regulate prolonged morning wakefulness. Moreover, loss of TRPA1 function affects siesta behavior, but not synchronization to temperature cycles. In addition, increasing ambient temperature with different protocols may induce different effects on the flies. Consistent with a the previous report, this study showed that both the strong loss-of-function mutant and depletion of TRPA1 in ACs exhibited the suppression in warmth-induced wakefulness (Jin, 2021).

Although TrpA1^ins-GAL4 is able to label TRPA1-expressing AC neurons, it also labels some other neurons that project to the same brain region as AC neurons. This study identified the NP5130-GAL4 driver that labels AC neurons and a pair of neurons in SOG. Previous GRASP analysis has shown that AC neurons form synaptic connections with DN1ps by using TrpA1^ins-GAL4 and Clk4.1M-lexA lines. However, blocking the synaptic transmission of Clk4.1M+ DN1ps failed to suppress warmth-induced wakefulness. GRASP analysis narrowed down the neurons that synaptically contact with AC neurons by using NP5130-GAL4 and R18H11-lexA lines. Supportive to this connectivity, calcium-imaging studies and genetic and behavioral analysis further support that ACs make synaptic contact with a subset of DN1ps and promote wakefulness via ACh signaling. Consistent with the previous studies, this study reveals that R18H11+, but not Clk4.1M+ or R18H11+/Clk4.1M−, DN1ps promote warmth-induced wakefulness. These results suggest that R18H11+/Clk4.1M+ DN1ps are essential for warmth-induced wakefulness. The potential roles of R18H11−/Clk4.1M+ DN1 neurons in warmth-induced wakefulness need to be further investigated (Jin, 2021).

DN1 neurons have been shown to integrate circadian, light, and temperature inputs to influence locomotor rhythms. Consistent with previous reports, consecutive calcium imaging reveals that acute heating rapidly inhibits CNMa+ DN1ps, whereas prolonged heating slowly increases Ca2+ level in CNMa+ DN1ps. These observations suggest that DN1ps receive multiple thermosensory inputs through different pathways. This study further reveals that CNMa signaling promotes warmth-induced wakefulness and demonstrates that DN1ps promote wakefulness via releasing the CNMa neuropeptide to inhibit Dh44+ PI neurons. Moreover, this study reveals that CNMa is involved in daytime sleep regulation and DN1 neurons also receive light inputs to influence locomotor rhythms. The mechanism of CNMa that regulates daytime sleep needs to be further investigated (Jin, 2021).

To sum up, the AC-DN1p-PI neural circuit integrates thermosensory inputs to promote wakefulness. These newly identified circuits initiate a further road map to understand integrative mechanisms at the circuit level (Jin, 2021).

Proper timing of rhythmic locomotor behavior is the consequence of integrating environmental conditions and internal time dictated by the circadian clock. Rhythmic environmental input like daily light and temperature changes (called Zeitgeber) reset the molecular clock and entrain it to the environmental time zone the organism lives in. This study attempted to entrain the clock with a Zeitgeber different from the environmental input used for phasing the behavior. 150 clock neurons in the Drosophila melanogaster brain control different aspects of the daily activity rhythms and are organized in various clusters, During regular 12 hr light: 12 hr dark cycles at constant mild temperature (LD 25°C, LD being the Zeitgeber), so called morning oscillator (MO) neurons control the increase of locomotor activity just before lights-on, while evening oscillator (EO) neurons regulate the activity increase at the end of the day, a few hours before lights-off. This study, using 12 h: 12 h 25°C:16°C temperature cycles as Zeitgeber, attempted to look at the impact of light on phasing locomotor behavior. While in constant light and 25°C:16°C temperature cycles (LLTC), flies show an unimodal locomotor activity peak in the evening, during the same temperature cycle, but in the absence of light (DDTC), the phase of the activity peak is shifted to the morning. This study shows that the EO is necessary for synchronized behavior in LLTC but not for entraining the molecular clock of the other clock neuronal groups, while the MO controls synchronized morning activity in DDTC. Interestingly, the data suggest that the influence of the EO on the synchronization increases depending on the length of the photoperiod (constant light vs 12h of light). Hence, these results show that effects of different environmental cues on clock entrainment and activity phase can be separated, allowing to decipher their integration by the circadian clock (Lorber, 2022).

Recent studies have shown that alternative splicing (AS) plays an important role in regulating circadian rhythm. However, it is not clear whether clock neuron-specific AS is circadian rhythm dependent and what genetic and environmental factors mediate the circadian control of AS. By genome-wide RNA sequencing, SRP54 was identified is one of the Clock (Clk) dependent alternative splicing factors. Genetic interaction between Clock and SRP54 alleles showed that the enhancement of the circadian phenotype increased with temperature, being strongest at 29 °C and weakest at 18 °C. The alternative splicing and differential gene expression profile of Clock and SRP54 overlapped with the circadian-related gene profiles identified in various genome-wide studies, indicating that SRP54 is involved in circadian rhythm. By analyzing of the RNA-seq results at different temperatures, it was found that the roles of Clock and SRP54 are temperature dependent. Multiple novel temperature-dependent transcripts not documented in current databases were also found (Li, 2022).

Ambient temperature varies constantly. However, the period of circadian pacemakers is remarkably stable over a wide-range of ecologically- and physiologically-relevant temperatures, even though the kinetics of most biochemical reactions accelerates as temperature rises. This thermal buffering phenomenon, called temperature compensation, is a critical feature of circadian rhythms, but how it is achieved remains elusive. This study uncovered the important role played by the Drosophila PERIOD (PER) phosphodegron in temperature compensation. This phosphorylation hotspot is crucial for PER proteasomal degradation and is the functional homolog of mammalian PER2 S478 phosphodegron, which also impacts temperature compensation. Using CRISPR-Cas9, a series of mutations was introduced that altered three Serines of the PER phosphodegron. While all three Serine to Alanine substitutions lengthened period at all temperatures tested, temperature compensation was differentially affected. S44A and S45A substitutions caused undercompensation, while S47A resulted in overcompensation. These results thus reveal unexpected functional heterogeneity of phosphodegron residues in thermal compensation. Furthermore, mutations impairing phosphorylation of the per^s phosphocluster showed undercompensation, consistent with its inhibitory role on S47 phosphorylation. It was observed that S47A substitution caused increased accumulation of hyper-phosphorylated PER at warmer temperatures. This finding was corroborated by cell culture assays in which S47A slowed down phosphorylation-dependent PER degradation at high temperatures, causing PER degradation to be excessively temperature-compensated. Thus, these results point to a novel role of the PER phosphodegron in temperature compensation through temperature-dependent modulation of the abundance of hyper-phosphorylated PER. This work reveals interesting mechanistic convergences and differences between mammalian and Drosophila temperature compensation of the circadian clock (Joshi, 2022).

Most cyclic biological processes are under control of a circadian molecular timing system that synchronizes these phenomena to the 24-h day. One generic property of circadian-controlled processes is that they operate within a specific temperature range, below which the manifestation of rhythm ceases. Little is known about the evolutionary relevance of the lower temperature limit of rhythmicity or about the mechanism underlying the loss of overt circadian behavior below this lower limit, especially in one model organism of chronobiology, Drosophila melanogaster. Natural populations of Drosophila are evolving under divergent selection pressures and so provide a source of diversity necessary to address these issues. Using lines derived from African populations, this study found that there is natural variation in the expression of rhythmic behavior under low-temperature conditions. Evidence was found that this variability is evolutionarily relevant at extremely low temperature (12 degrees C) because high-altitude populations exhibit selection for locally adapted genomes that contribute to rhythmic behavior. Lines resistant to 15 degrees C show an additional layer of diversity in their response to temperature extremes because some lines are resistant to low temperature (15 degrees C) only, whereas others are cross-resistant to high and low temperature (15 degrees C and 30 degrees C). Genetic analysis of one cold-resistant circadian line at 15 degrees C reveals that the phenotype maps to the X-chromosome but not to the core clock genes, per and sgg. Analysis of the central clock cells of this line reveals that maintenance of rhythm is associated with robust clock function, which is compromised in a standard laboratory strain. These data indicate that the cold-resistant circadian phenotype is clock based. This study highlights the importance of using natural populations to inform us of the basic features of circadian traits, especially those that might be under temperature-based selection (Maguire, 2014).

These data indicating that IR25a contributes to temperature sensing within ChO extend the roles of IR's beyond chemoreception, reminiscent of the requirement for the 'gustatory receptor' Gr28b in warmth-avoidance. Although this study shows that IR25a-expressing leg neurons are capable of sensing temperature and mediating temperature entrainment, it is possible that this receptor has a similar role elsewhere in the peripheral nervous system. IR25a responds to small temperature changes and it is proposed that the fly continuously integrates temperature signals received from multiple ChO across the whole body for synchronization of the clock. This potential reliance on weakly responding temperature receptors might explain why the Drosophila circadian clock is insensitive to brief temperature pulses, which could help maintain synchronized clock function in natural conditions of rapid and large temperature fluctuations (Chen, 2015).

Harbison, S. T., Serrano Negron, Y. L., Hansen, N. F. and Lobell, A. S. (2017). Selection for long and short sleep duration in Drosophila melanogaster reveals the complex genetic network underlying natural variation in sleep. PLoS Genet 13(12): e1007098. PubMed ID: 29240764

Why do some individuals need more sleep than others? Forward mutagenesis screens in flies using engineered mutations have established a clear genetic component to sleep duration, revealing mutants that convey very long or short sleep. Whether such extreme long or short sleep could exist in natural populations was unknown. This study applied artificial selection for high and low night sleep duration to an outbred population of Drosophila melanogaster for 13 generations. Night sleep duration diverged by 9.97 hours in the long and short sleeper populations, and 24-hour sleep was reduced to 3.3 hours in the short sleepers. Whole genome sequence data revealed several hundred thousand changes in allele frequencies at polymorphic loci across the genome. Combining the data from long and short sleeper populations across generations in a logistic regression implicated 126 polymorphisms in 80 candidate genes, and three of these genes and a larger genomic region were confirmed with mutant and chromosomal deficiency tests, respectively. Many of these genes could be connected in a single network based on previously known physical and genetic interactions. Candidate genes have known roles in several classic, highly conserved developmental and signaling pathways-EGFR, Wnt, Hippo, and MAPK. The involvement of highly pleiotropic pathway genes suggests that sleep duration in natural populations can be influenced by a wide variety of biological processes, which may be why the purpose of sleep has been so elusive (Harbison, 2017).

Circadian clocks have evolved to synchronize physiology, metabolism and behaviour to the 24-h geophysical cycles of the Earth. Drosophila melanogaster's rhythmic locomotor behaviour provides the main phenotype for the identification of higher eukaryotic clock genes. Under laboratory light-dark cycles, flies show enhanced activity before lights on and off signals, and these anticipatory responses have defined the neuronal sites of the corresponding morning (M) and evening (E) oscillators. However, the natural environment provides much richer cycling environmental stimuli than the laboratory, so this study sought to examine fly locomotor rhythms in the wild. Several key laboratory-based assumptions about circadian behaviour are not supported by natural observations. These include the anticipation of light transitions, the midday 'siesta', the fly's crepuscular activity, its nocturnal behaviour under moonlight, and the dominance of light stimuli over temperature. Also, a third major locomotor component in addition to M and E, which was termed 'A' (afternoon). Furthermore, it was shown that these natural rhythm phenotypes can be observed in the laboratory by using realistic temperature and light cycle simulations. The results suggest that a comprehensive re-examination of circadian behaviour and its molecular readouts under simulated natural conditions will provide a more authentic interpretation of the adaptive significance of this important rhythmic phenotype. Such studies should also help to clarify the underlying molecular and neuroanatomical substrates of the clock under natural protocols (Vanin, 2012).

The association between sleep and memory in Drosophila has recently been described in various reports. Other short sleep flies, hyperkinetic and calcineurin knockdown, also suffer from impaired memory. Sleep deprivation has been shown to impair aversive olfactory memory and learned phototaxis suppression. Conversely, memory formation increased sleep duration in normal flies, and this has not been observed in learning-deficient mutants. In the Drosophila brain, the expression of synaptic component proteins decreased during sleep and increased during waking, suggesting that sleep is required for the maintenance of synapses. In contrast, the current data imply a functional dissociation between sleep and memory circuits by different dopamine neurons. These results will provide clues to uncover a possible physiological relationship between them, for example, by the activation of only one to examine the causal relationship (Ueno, 2012).

The FSB has been reported to have a role in visual memory processing, but its involvement in other behaviors is not yet fully understood. A recent report showed that activation of dFSB neurons induces sleep. This suggests that the dopamine signal regulates sleep via control of the neural properties of the dFSB neurons through DA1. In mammals, dopamine signaling via the D1-type dopamine receptor is thought to increase firing probability. However, dopamine signaling via the D1-like receptor DA1 in flies results in the inhibition of neural activity. Although the previous report suggested that the inhibition is independent of protein kinase A, activation of adenylyl cyclase with Gs* in dFSB decreased sleep levels. Taken together, these findings indicate that DA1 activation in the dFSB inhibits neural activity and results in the promotion of wakefulness. It has been reported that sleep induction through the activation of the dFSB neurons promotes memory consolidation after courtship conditioning. However, this study found that DA1 expression in the FSB itself had little effect on aversive olfactory memory. The contradiction between these findings might be a result of the difference in the memory tasks. It is also possible that functional interaction between sleep and memory is implemented downstream of the FSB. Further studies are required to elucidate the causal relationship between sleep and memory (Ueno, 2012).

To advance the understanding of sleep regulation, a screen was performed in Drosophila for sleep-promoting cells, and neurons expressing neuropeptide Y-like short neuropeptide F (sNPF) were identifed. Sleep induction by sNPF meets all relevant criteria. Rebound sleep following sleep deprivation is reduced by activation of sNPF neurons, and flies experience negative sleep rebound upon cessation of sNPF neuronal stimulation, indicating that sNPF provides an important signal to the sleep homeostat. Only a subset of sNPF-expressing neurons, which includes the small ventrolateral clock neurons, is sleep promoting. Their release of sNPF increases sleep consolidation in part by suppressing the activity of wake-promoting large ventrolateral clock neurons, and suppression of neuronal firing may be the general response to sNPF receptor activation. sNPF acutely increases sleep without altering feeding behavior, which it affects only on a much longer time scale. The profound effect of sNPF on sleep indicates that it is an important sleep-promoting molecule (Shang, 2013).

This study presents several independent lines of evidence indicating that sNPF acutely increases sleep and alters sleep homeostasis. This is because release of animals from sNPF neuron activation after several days of hypersomnolence resulted in a transient decrease in sleep or negative sleep rebound. Moreover, activation of sNPF neurons during mechanical sleep deprivation blunted the rebound sleep following the deprivation. This suggests that sNPF might alter the internal perception of sleep state during the deprivation despite an apparently behaviorally awake state. It also suggests that sNPF might directly modulate the sleep homeostat (Shang, 2013).

The most potent in vivo manipulations of sNPF function, mutation of the sNPF gene and strong activation of sNPF neurons with dTRPA1, affect daytime as well as nighttime sleep levels. These manipulations also strongly alter sleep bout duration, a measure of consolidation, in the opposite direction to the sleep duration effects. More limited manipulations of sNPF signaling (cell-specific downregulation of sNPF levels or of sNPF signaling) indicate that sNPF is most important for promoting sleep at night. It also affects the structure of daytime sleep, a function of sNPF circuitry normally suppressed during the day by wake-promoting GABAergic neurons, acting via GABAA receptors. Suppression of excitability with Kir2.1 likely mimics this daytime GABAergic function. These results in aggregate suggest that sNPF action differs depending on the time of day, a result that supports the idea that daytime and nighttime sleep may be regulated by different circuitries (Shang, 2013).

The role of sNPF in promoting more consolidated sleep is consistent with a general antiarousal function. As in mammals, Drosophila arousal can be measured electrophysiologically, but the most straightforward measure of arousal state is behavioral, and sleep fragmentation is indicative of a less stable, more easily aroused state. The main neurochemical previously implicated in fly arousal is DA, and l-LNvs play a prominent role in the arousal circuitry (Shang, 2013).

Although the imaging assays indicated that sNPF alone did not lead to significant cAMP changes in the l-LNvs, it mildly suppressed the activation effect of DA on the l-LNvs. As one subset of clock neurons in the sleep circuit releases sNPF and promotes sleep at night and an adjacent subset responds to sNPF and suppresses nighttime sleep, sNPF may be used by the s-LNv-to-l-LNv pathway to coordinate the timing of sleep with other circadian behaviors. Indeed, sNPF mRNA is a potent cycling mRNA in s-LNvs (Kula-Eversole, 2010). Importantly, the electrophysiological assays in larval central neurons suggest that inhibition of neuronal firing may be a general feature of sNPF function and relevant to other sleep centers in addition to the clock neurons (Shang, 2013).

sNPF and other sleep-relevant neuromodulators like DA are likely to act at multiple sites in the brain given the major state change effected by the sleep/wake transition. This expectation also reflects the modest effects of sNPFR manipulation within l-LNvs on total sleep time. Moreover, fan-shaped body neurons have recently been shown to be important for DA-mediated arousal (Liu, 2012; Ueno, 2012). The ability of these neuromodulators to act on many circuits may allow for more flexible integration of sleep with other behaviors and with other external and internal factors (Shang, 2013)

An important influence on sleep is metabolic state. Indeed, sNPF facilitated the OA-to-DILP circuit, which may reflect its role in sleep/wake, feeding and/or metabolic regulation. However, the wake-promoting effect of activating the DILP pathway is context-dependent, occurring only in LD. Moreover, acute activation of octopaminergic neurons by dTRPA1 only mildly affects sleep and also in a condition-dependent manner, and feeding animals with octopamine only significantly suppresses total sleep after 2-€“3 days of exposure. Although long-term activation of octopaminergic neurons leads to long-lasting increases in food dwelling, these effects contrast sharply with the rapid and condition-independent effects seen with acute increases in dopamine signaling (Shang, 2011). Dopaminergic neurons have also been shown to be a critical part of NPF-regulated changes in satiety and response to food, and activation of these neurons indeed led to an immediate onset of food dwelling, which reversed rapidly upon dTRPA1 inactivation. As expected, tracker analysis shows that these food-dwelling flies also sleep very little, indicating that dopamine affects both sleep and feeding rapidly. These effects contrast with the slow effects on food dwelling by sNPF neuronal activation (Shang, 2013)

The simplest interpretation of this slow food-dwelling response is that it is secondary to a more primary effect of sNPF on sleep. Indeed, a slow buildup in hunger or even starvation as a consequence of too much sleep is a simple explanation consistent with most if not all of these data. Behavioral effects as a secondary consequence of some other more direct effect is also an interpretation of many of the sleep effects of activation of peptidergic neurons seen in this study, in which only sNPF robustly increased sleep, i.e., under both LD and DD conditions. It is therefore suggested that a necessary condition for serious consideration of a molecule as behavior-relevant is a rapid response, which is also relatively condition independent. Dopamine as a wake-promoting molecule and now sNPF as a sleep-promoting molecule meet these criteria (Shang, 2013).

This study reports a new protein involved in the homeostatic regulation of sleep in Drosophila. A forward genetic screen was conducted of chemically mutagenized flies to identify short-sleeping mutants, and one, redeye (rye; nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor α4), was found that shows a severe reduction of sleep length. Cloning of rye reveals that it encodes a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha subunit required for Drosophila sleep. Levels of RYE oscillate in light-dark cycles and peak at times of daily sleep. Cycling of RYE is independent of a functional circadian clock, but rather depends upon the sleep homeostat, as protein levels are up-regulated in short-sleeping mutants and also in wild type animals following sleep deprivation. It is proposed that the homeostatic drive to sleep increases levels of RYE, which responds to this drive by promoting sleep (Shi, 2014).

The molecular mechanism of sleep homeostasis is a mystery and a subject of intense research in the sleep field. In addition to the investigation of mechanisms underlying sleep drive, considerable effort is being put into identifying biomarkers of sleep need. Based on what is known about the so-called sleep homeostat, which consists of increasing sleep pressure during wakefulness and dissipation of such pressure following sleep, it is suggested that a component or direct output of the homeostat should satisfy three criteria: (1) the gene product should regulate the sleep:wake cycle (i.e., genetic alleles of this gene should have some sleep phenotype); (2) expression levels or activity of the gene product should go up during wakefulness or during sleep deprivation and (3) expression levels or activity should decrease after sleep. The function of RYE and the molecular kinetics of the RYE protein largely satisfy these criteria. However, while RYE builds up during sleep deprivation, it does not accumulate gradually over the wake period in a daily cycle. Rather, it displays a marked increase close to the time of sleep onset, suggesting that it is not a central component of the homeostat, but responds to an upstream homeostatic signal, perhaps when that signal reaches a certain threshold. The fact that over-expression of RYE does not promote sleep also supports the idea that it is not the sleep-inducing homeostatic signal. Nevertheless, RYE is not simply a sleep output gene or sleep biomarker. It is required for implementation of signals from the homeostat and it functions to maintain sleep. Thus, it is proposed that rye is a sleep-regulating gene immediately downstream of the homeostat (Shi, 2014).

It is suggested that RYE represents a molecular correlate of delta power, a characteristic of an electroencephalogram (EEG) that reflects sleep drive. Recently, a few other molecules were reported to change with sleep drive, but the effects were at the level of the mRNA, the magnitude of the increase was less than we report here for RYE and loss of the molecules did not affect baseline sleep duration. In addition, only one is expressed cyclically, indicating that others reflect sleep drive only under pathological conditions of sleep deprivation. RYE levels oscillate robustly in a daily cycle, although the phase is not as coherent as seen for circadian clock proteins. The timing of the peak varies within a temporal range, such that there is almost always a daytime peak and a night-time peak but not necessarily at the exact same time. It is suggested that RYE cycles under control of the sleep homeostat, which may not time behavior as precisely as the circadian clock, perhaps because sleep can be influenced by many factors. The variability in RYE cycling is particularly pronounced in short-sleeping mutants and in the Clk^Jrk circadian clock mutant, suggesting that the clock does influence RYE expression although it is not required for its cycling in an LD cycle. Interestingly, RYE cycles exclusively at the level of the protein, indicating translational or post-translational mechanisms. It is worth noting that a recently identified sleep regulator, Insomniac, is a component of specific protein degradation pathways in the cell. Although this study indicates that RYE cycling does not require Insomniac, it is possible that it is regulated by other protein turn-over machinery. Thus, translational/posttranslational regulation appears to be part of the mechanism of sleep homeostasis (Shi, 2014).

This study shows that RYE not only reflects sleep drive, but is also required for sleep maintenance. Given that RYE is induced by sleep deprivation and it promotes sleep, one might expect over-expression of the protein to increase sleep. However, transgenic expression of rye in a wild type background does not increase sleep, suggesting that while rye is necessary, it is not sufficient for sleep onset. The possibility cannot be excluded that RYE functions together with other signals as part of the sleep-inducing homeostatic drive. On the other hand, it is also possible that transgenic expression does not produce adequate amounts of RYE protein in relevant cells. This might be the case if RYE is tightly regulated at the level of protein stability. For the moment, though, the parsimonious explanation noted above is preferred, that RYE is not part of the homeostat, but immediately downstream of it (Shi, 2014).

Acetylcholine signaling has been long proposed as an arousal factor, as the nAChR complex is a cation channel that normally promotes neuronal activity and ACh is released during wakefulness in mammals. In contrast, this study indicates that at least one nAChR subunit (RYE) promotes sleep in the fly. There are more than 10 paralogs of nAChR subunits in the fly genome. One possibility is that RYE is expressed specifically in sleep promoting neurons, while other subunits of AChRs are in wake-promoting cells. An increase in ACh during wakefulness may contribute to the accumulation of sleep drive and to the increase in RYE. Alternatively, sleep drive may increase RYE independently of ACh, but in either scenario, RYE then promotes sleep. The precise site of RYE action is currently not known. rye-gal4 driven GFP is expressed widely in the brain, but it is not certain that endogenous RYE is as widespread, as an antibody was not effective in immunohistochemistry experiments, and GAL4 drivers are often quite promiscuous (Shi, 2014).

Sleepless (SSS) was previously identified as a sleep promoting factor, essential for maintaining baseline sleep and for homeostatic rebound. An interaction between rye and sss is therefore not surprising. What is surprising is that overexpression of SSS promotes wakefulness in rye^T227M heterozygotes. SSS is a GPI-anchored protein that functions as a neuronal modulator. Previous studies indicate that SSS promotes activity of the voltage-gated potassium channel, Shaker. This study reports that SSS acts like a brake on nAChR (RYE) activity, as does Lynx-1, a SSS-like molecule in mammals. Although the data shown for Drosophila receptors used only the RYE α subunit, it is likely that SSS also inhibits activity of other Drosophila nAChR receptors. As both sss^P1 (a null mutation) and sss^P2 (a hypomorphic allele) are short-sleeping mutants, it is proposed that the overall effect of SSS is to promote sleep. The reduced sleep in sss mutants probably results from an increase of neuronal excitability, through inactivation of potassium channels (Shaker), or from hyperactivity of nAChR channels in wake-promoting neurons. Thus, typically the sleep-inhibiting effect of SSS, mediated through RYE, is masked by these other more dominant influences. However, in a sensitized background (i.e., rye/+), this effect is evident. RYE promotes sleep, and so loss of RYE results in a decrease in sleep, which is further impacted by SSS overexpression (Shi, 2014).

It is noted that there are some caveats to these data. For instance, the rye^T227M allele could confer a neomorphic function that accounts for the interaction with sss. Likewise, the effects in oocytes could be non-physiological, not necessarily reflecting what happens in the fly brain. However, given that interactions were observed in these two very different types of assays, and both assays indicate repression of nAchR function by SSS, which is the effect predicted from the role of the mammalian SSS-like protein, Lynx1, it is believed SSS does indeed regulate nAchRs such as RYE. Interactions between SSS and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are also confirmed by other recent unpublished studies (Shi, 2014).

It is interesting that genes identified through independent genetic screens in Drosophila are turning out to interact with one another. SSS and Shaker were isolated independently as sleep-regulating genes, and subsequently shown to interact, and now it turns out that RYE interacts with SSS. Given that each of these genes represents a relatively infrequent hit in an unbiased screen, the interactions suggest that genetic approaches are converging upon specific sleep-regulating pathways. Interestingly, a recent Genome-wide association study for sleep-altering loci in humans identified significant effects of SNPs in an nAchR subunit as well as in a regulatory subunit of Shaker, suggesting that these mechanisms are also conserved across species (Shi, 2014).

Intriguingly, the data, as well as data from the Allen Brain Atlas, suggest that the putative mouse homolog of Wake (ANKFN1) is enriched in the mouse SCN, the master circadian pacemaker in mammals. Specifically, ANKFN1 is expressed in the 'core' region of the SCN, which is analogous to the large LNvs in flies, in that it receives light input and its molecular oscillator does not cycle or cycles weakly in DD. These observations support a potential conservation of Wake function in regulating clock-dependent timing of sleep onset, which will be evaluated by ongoing genetic analysis in mice. The pronounced difficulty of wake flies to fall asleep at lights off is reminiscent of sleep-onset insomnia in humans. Moreover, the most widely used medications for the treatment of insomnia are GABA agonists. Thus, the identification of a molecule that mediates circadian timing of sleep onset by promoting GABA signaling may lead to a deeper understanding of mechanisms underlying insomnia and its potential therapies (Liu, 2014).

Neurons use two main schemes to encode information: rate coding (frequency of firing) and temporal coding (timing or pattern of firing). While the importance of rate coding is well established, it remains controversial whether temporal codes alone are sufficient for controlling behavior. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of specific temporal codes are enigmatic. This study shows in Drosophila clock neurons that distinct temporal spike patterns, dissociated from changes in firing rate, encode time-dependent arousal and regulate sleep. From a large-scale genetic screen, this study identified the molecular pathways mediating the circadian-dependent changes in ionic flux and spike morphology that rhythmically modulate spike timing. Remarkably, the daytime spiking pattern alone is sufficient to drive plasticity in downstream arousal neurons, leading to increased firing of these cells. These findings demonstrate a causal role for temporal coding in behavior and define a form of synaptic plasticity triggered solely by temporal spike patterns (Tabuchi, 2018).

Understanding how the brain represents and processes information is a fundamental goal of neuroscience research. For the first half of the 20th century, the dominant neural coding model postulated that simple action potential (spike) counts in the relevant time window encode information about the environment or internal states (i.e., the rate-coding model). However, it has long been recognized that neural coding schemes using temporal codes (timing and/or pattern of spiking) would be computationally more powerful than traditional rate codes. In contrast to rate coding, which comprises a singular mechanism, temporal coding encompasses a diverse repertoire of coding schemes in individual or groups of neurons, ranging from latency to first spike to synchronization of oscillatory activity between spatially segregated neuronal populations (Tabuchi, 2018).

A wide variety of temporal codes have now been observed to correlate with specific external stimuli in different settings, including sensory systems, hippocampal place cells, and neocortical circuits. However, the assessment of whether and how temporal codes embody neurobiologically relevant information is complicated by multiple factors, such as the concomitant presence of changes in firing rate, integration of spatial with temporal information, and the requirement for multiple interacting brain regions in the regulation of behavior. The rigorous demonstration of a causal role for temporal codes in representing biological information requires the fulfillment of three criteria. First, the temporal code should exist under native conditions or be elicited by naturalistic stimuli. Second, as articulated in the 'reader-actuator' model, a meaningful neural code should trigger a distinct response in the downstream neural circuit. Third, the temporal code should have physiological significance and be utilized by the brain to inform behavioral choices (Tabuchi, 2018).

While many studies have identified temporal codes occurring in response to naturally occurring sensory stimuli, relatively few studies have shown that induction of specific temporal codes alter the firing of target neural circuits or affect behavior. For instance, in olfactory sensory neurons in mammals, varying the timing of firing relative to other neurons or the sniff cycle impacts firing of downstream neurons. However, other studies have found that temporal coding in olfactory, visual, and somatosensory systems had no effect on the activity of target neurons or behavioral readouts. Thus, the functional relevance for temporal coding alone to represent information about the environment and internal states remains controversial. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms that underlie the generation of different temporal codes within a neural circuit are largely unknown (Tabuchi, 2018).

This study, in the clock neuron network in Drosophila, demonstrates the presence of naturally occurring temporal spiking patterns associated with daytime versus nighttime; the cycling of these patterns was found to depend on the core clock and wide awake (wake), a recently identified clock output gene required for circadian regulation of sleep. Using optogenetic approaches in vivo, this study shows that these distinct patterns of clock neuron firing, in the absence of changes in firing rate, serve as a temporal code to signify time-dependent arousal and directly impact sleep behavior. From a large-scale forward genetic screen, this study identified the molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of these clock-dependent temporal codes. Electrophysiological and computational analyses was used to delineate the biophysical processes that rhythmically shape spike morphology and tune the firing patterns of these clock neurons. Remarkably, the temporal spiking pattern alone was found to drive neural plastic changes, which mediate the transformation of temporal codes in clock neurons to increased firing of a downstream arousal circuit. Together, these data demonstrate a causal role for temporal coding in behavior that is mediated by a distinct form of synaptic plasticity specifically triggered by the pattern of neural spiking (Tabuchi, 2018).

The molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of different temporal codes are largely unknown. This study shows that the circadian clock drives distinct temporal spiking patterns, as defined by the second-order temporal structure of interspike intervals, by adjusting ionic flux in clock neurons in a time-dependent manner. These changes are mediated by the clock output molecule WAKE, which controls the membrane targeting of SLOB and a Na+/K+ ATPase β subunit. This dynamic regulation of ionic flux leads to cycling of specific aspects of spike waveforms, which in turn induces the temporal spiking patterns seen during the day versus the night (Tabuchi, 2018).

From a broader perspective, this work addresses a central issue in neuroscience: the functional importance of temporal codes in encoding information and impacting behavior. One challenge in demonstrating a causal role of temporal coding is identifying systems with a defined neural circuit where changes in the pattern or timing of spiking occur naturally, lead to measurable effects in target neurons, and regulate a specific behavior. An additional confounding factor is that information can be coded in a multiplexed manner with concurrent spatial, temporal, and rate-related features. This study shows that the Drosophila clock network fulfills these criteria and finds that time is encoded unidimensionally by the spiking patterns of these neurons in the absence of changes in firing rate or network timing (due to synchronization of neural firing within a cluster). Moreover, using computational, in vivo optogenetic, and electrophysiological approaches in these clock neurons, it was demonstrated that this temporal coding has functional consequences on the firing of a target arousal circuit and on sleep behavior. While the findings suggest that the irregular second-order spiking pattern is critical for this process, it is also possible that the temporal code consists of brief periods of faster spiking that are repeated over a >40-s time frame (Tabuchi, 2018).

Previous work has demonstrated that WAKE is critical for clock-dependent regulation of sleep onset at dusk and that it upregulates and properly targets GABAA receptor to mediate this process by markedly suppressing the firing rate of clock neurons (Liu, 2014). Why would multiple neural coding mechanisms (rate coding changes at dusk and temporal coding at mid-day and mid-night) evolve to underlie circadian clock regulation of sleep at different times? One possibility relates to the dynamics of sleep onset versus sleep quality. Transitions between sleep and wake are major changes in brain state occurring on a relatively short timescale and hence may require dramatic changes in firing rate (i.e., rate coding) that are energetically costly. In contrast, maintenance of sleep quality occurs over hours; thus, it may be more energetically favorable for the relevant neurons to alter the pattern, instead of the rate, of their firing. Because of these potential energy savings, it is speculated that the use of temporal spiking patterns to encode information could be a broadly used mechanism for representing persistent internal states, such as hunger or emotion (Tabuchi, 2018).

Finally, this study demonstrate that changes in the pattern of spike firing in the DN1ps, independent of changes in firing rate, triggers NMDA-receptor-dependent postsynaptic plasticity in the Dilp2+ PI neurons. Importantly, these data suggest a specific mechanism for inducing synaptic plasticity distinct from previously described processes that are dependent on changes in rate coding (e.g., long-term potentiation) or relative timing of individual spike events (e.g., STDP). These data represent one of the first examples of synaptic plasticity being induced specifically by the intrinsic temporal pattern of spiking, expanding the repertoire by which neural codes can generate plasticity. Together, these findings suggest that temporal patterns of spike firing are a crucial mechanism for driving neural plastic changes that mediate how internal states modulate behavior (Tabuchi, 2018).

Daily cycles of rest and activity are a common example of circadian control of physiology. In Drosophila, rhythmic locomotor cycles rely on the activity of 150-200 neurons grouped in seven clusters. Work from many laboratories points to the small ventral lateral neurons (sLNvs) as essential for circadian control of locomotor rhythmicity. sLNv neurons undergo circadian remodeling of their axonal projections, opening the possibility for a circadian control of connectivity of these relevant circadian pacemakers. This study shows that circadian plasticity of the sLNv axonal projections has further implications than mere structural changes. First, it was found that the degree of daily structural plasticity exceeds that originally described, underscoring that changes in the degree of fasciculation as well as extension or pruning of axonal terminals could be involved. Interestingly, the quantity of active zones changes along the day, lending support to the attractive hypothesis that new synapses are formed while others are dismantled between late night and the following morning. More remarkably, taking full advantage of the GFP reconstitution across synaptic partners (GRASP) technique, this study showed that, in addition to new synapses being added or removed, sLNv neurons contact different synaptic partners at different times along the day. These results lead to a proposal that the circadian network, and in particular the sLNv neurons, orchestrates some of the physiological and behavioral differences between day and night by changing the path through which information travels (Gorostaza, 2014).

Circadian remodeling of the small ventral lateral neuron (sLNv) dorsal terminals was first described at the peak and trough levels of pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) immunoreactivity, that is at zeitgeber time 2 (ZT2) and ZT14 (2 hr after lights ON and lights OFF, respectively), as well as their counterparts under constant darkness (DD) (circadian time 2 [CT2] and CT14). For a more precise examination of the extent of structural remodeling, a time course was carried out. An inducible GAL4 version termed GeneSwitch restricted to PDF neurons (pdf-GS) combined with a membrane-tethered version of GFP (mCD8GFP) was used as control. As expected from the original observations, a significant reduction in complexity of the axonal arbor-measured as total axonal crosses-could be seen between CT2 and CT14 and between CT18 and CT22, which remained unchanged at nighttime. However, toward the end of the subjective night (CT22), the primary processes appeared to be shorter. To more precisely describe this additional form of plasticity, the length of the maximum projection was measure from the lateral horn toward the midbrain. This analysis revealed that toward the end of the subjective night (CT22), PDF projections are significantly shorter than at the beginning of the day (CT2). These observations imply that mechanisms other than the proposed changes in the degree of fasciculation are recruited during circadian plasticity. To get a deeper insight into the nature of the phenomena, the changes were monitored in brain explants kept in culture for 48 hr after dissection. Transgenic pdf-GAL4; UAS-mCD8RFP flies (referred to as pdf>RFP) were dissected under safe red light, and brains were maintained under DD. Imaging of individual brains at two different time points highlighted three types of changes experienced by axonal terminals: (1) changes in the degree of fasciculation/defasciculation, more common in primary branches, (2) the addition/retraction of new processes, mostly affecting those of secondary or tertiary order, and (3) positional changes of minor terminals, thus confirming and extending previous observations. Altogether, these results indicate that a rather complex remodeling process takes place on daily basis in the axonal terminals of PDF neurons (Gorostaza, 2014).

The level of structural remodeling occurring at the dorsal terminals suggested that synapses themselves could undergo changes in a time-dependent fashion. The presynaptic protein Synaptotagmin (SYT) was examined at different times across the day as an indicator of vesicle accumulation. A GFP-tagged version of SYT was expressed in PDF neurons (pdf >syt^GFP), and both the number and area span by SYT+ puncta (most likely describing the accumulation of several dense core vesicles) were analyzed separately at the sLNv dorsal terminals. No statistical differences were observed in the number of SYT+ puncta (although there is a tendency for higher numbers in the early morning), perhaps as a result of the nature of the signal, which is too diffuse for precise identification of individual spots. On the other hand, SYT+ puncta were larger and, as a result, the area covered by SYT+ immunoreactivity was significantly different at CT2 compared to CT14, but not between CT22 and CT2, perhaps reflecting that vesicles started to accumulate at the end of the day in preparation for the most dramatic membrane change taking place between CT22 and the beginning of the following morning (Gorostaza, 2014).

The observation that a more complex structure correlated with a larger area covered by presynaptic vesicles reinforced the notion that indeed the number of synapses could be changing throughout the day and prompted analysis of Bruchpilot (BRP), a well-established indicator of active zones. Expressing a tagged version of BRP in PDF neurons, the number of BRP+ puncta was quantitated as a proxy for active zones at times when the most dramatic changes in structure had been detected (i.e., CT2, CT14, and CT22). Interestingly, the number of active zones was significantly larger at CT2 than at CT14 or CT22; in fact, no statistical differences were observed between the last two time points, underscoring that axonal remodeling can occur (i.e., pruning of major projections taking place toward the end of the night) without significantly affecting overall connectivity. Thus, circadian structural plasticity is accompanied by changes in the number of synapses. Not only are more vesicles recruited toward CT2, but also a higher number of active zones are being established (Gorostaza, 2014).

Circadian changes in the abundance of the presynaptic active zone BRP have also been shown in the first optic neuropil of the fly brain, although BRP abundance in the lamina increases in the early night under DD conditions, in contrast to the oscillations in BRP levels observed at the dorsal protocerebrum that peak in the early subjective day just described. In addition, rhythmic changes in the number of synapses have also been described in the terminals of adult motor neurons in Drosophila examined through transmission electron microscopy, as well as BRP+ light confocal microscopy, underscoring the validity of the approach employed herein. Interestingly, in different brain areas, the level of presynaptic markers (such as BRP^RFP or SYT^GFP) also changes in response to the sleep/wake 'state,' being high when the animals are awake and lower during sleep; this observation led to the proposal that sleep could be involved in maintaining synaptic homeostasis altered during the awaking state. This trend coincides with observation of higher levels during the subjective morning and lower levels at the beginning of the subjective night; however, no changes were detected through the night, suggesting that, at least in clock neurons, there is a circadian rather than a homeostatic control of synaptic activity. Given that clock outputs are predominantly regulated at the transcriptional level and that there is circadian regulation of MEF2, a transcription factor that turns on a program involved in structural remodeling, this correlation opens the provocative possibility that the circadian clock is controlling the ability of assembling novel synapses in particularly plastic neurons, which might become recruited and/or stabilized, or otherwise pruned (disassembled), toward the end of the day (Gorostaza, 2014).

Adult-specific electrical silencing of PDF neurons reduces the complexity of dorsal arborizations, although a certain degree of circadian remodeling of the axonal terminals still takes place. To examine whether electrical alterations could affect circadian changes in the number of active zones, either Kir2.1 or NaChBac was expressed (to hyperpolarize or depolarize PDF neurons, respectively). To avoid any undesired developmental defects, pdf-GS was used to drive expression of the channels only during adulthood. Interestingly, Kir2.1 expression abrogated circadian changes in the number of active zones. In fact, PDF neurons displayed a reduced number of active zones compared to controls at CT2 and remained at similar levels throughout the day, indistinguishable from nighttime controls. On the other hand, when neurons were depolarized through NaChBac expression, the number of active zones did not change along the day and was maintained at daytime levels even at CT14 and CT22 (Gorostaza, 2014).

It has recently been shown that MEF2, a transcription factor involved in activity-dependent neuronal plasticity and morphology in mammals, is circadianly regulated and mediates some of the remodeling of PDF dorsal terminals through the regulation of Fasciclin2. In contrast, adult-specific silencing (and depolarization) of PDF neurons abolishes cycling in the number of BRP+ active zones, despite the fact that it does not completely obliterate the remodeling of the axonal terminals, suggesting that some of the mechanisms underlying structural plasticity are clearly activity independent and are most likely the result of additional clock-controlled output pathways still to be identified (Gorostaza, 2014).

Since structural remodeling of PDF neurons results in the formation and disappearance of new synapses on daily basis, it was anticipated that not only the number but also the postsynaptic partners of these contacts could concomitantly be changing. To shed light on this possibility, GFP reconstitution across synaptic partners (GRASP), which labels contacts between adjacent membranes, was used. In brief, two complementary fragments of GFP tethered to the membrane are expressed in different cells. If those cells are in contact, GFP is reconstituted and becomes fluorescent. GRASP has previously been employed to monitor synapses in adult flies. Given the complex arborization at the dorsal protocerebrum, it was asked whether specific subsets of circadian neurons projecting toward that area could be contacting across the day. Perhaps not surprisingly, an extensive reconstituted GFP signal could be observed between the sLNv dorsal projections and those of the posterior dorsal neuron 1 cells (DN1ps, lighted up by the dClk4.1-GAL4 line, suggesting contacts along the entire area, which are detectable across all time points analyzed (ZT2, ZT14, and ZT22). Consistent with these observations, extensive physical contact between the sLNv projections and those of the DN1p neurons has just been reported at the dorsal protocerebrum with no clear indication of the time of day examined. Next the study examined whether a subset of dorsal LNs (LNds), projecting toward both the accessory medulla and the dorsal protocerebrum (through the combined expression of Mai179-GAL4; pdf-GAL80), could also contact the profuse dorsal arborization of sLNv neurons; this genetic combination enables expression of split-GFP in a restricted number of circadian cells (which are part of the evening oscillator, i.e., up to four LNds, including at least a CRYPTOCHROME-positive one, and the fifth sLNv), as well as others located within the pars intercerebralis (PI), a neurosecretory structure recently identified as part of the output pathway relevant in the control of locomotor behavior. In contrast to the extensive connections between DN1p and sLNv clusters, only very discreet reconstituted puncta were detected. Quite strikingly, the degree of connectivity appeared to change across the day, reaching a maximum (when almost every brain exhibited reconstituted signal) at ZT22. However, due to the nature of the signal, no quantitation of its intensity was attempted. Although a more detailed analysis is required to define the identity (i.e., whether it is one or several LNds, the fifth sLNv, or both groups that directly contact the sLNvs), this finding highlights a potentially direct contact between the neuronal substrates of the morning and evening oscillators. In sum, through GRASP analysis, this study has begun to map the connectivity within the circadian network; commensurate with a hierarchical role, the sLNvs appear to differentially contact specific subsets in a distinctive fashion (Gorostaza, 2014).

To address the possibility that PDF neurons could be contacting noncircadian targets at different times across the day, an enhancer trap screen was carried out employing a subset of GAL4 enhancers selected on the basis of their expression pattern in the adult brain, i.e., known to drive expression in the dorsal protocerebrum, and an additional requirement imposed was that none of the selected GAL4 lines could direct expression to the sLNv neurons to avoid internal GFP reconstitution. Reconstitution of the GFP signal at the sLNv dorsal terminals by recognition through specific antibodies was assessed at three different time points for each independent GAL4 line (ZT2, ZT14, and ZT22). Some of the GAL4 lines showed reconstituted GFP signal at every time point analyzed, suggesting that those neuronal projections are indeed in close contact across the day and might represent stable synaptic contacts. No GFP signal was detected in the negative parental controls. Despite the fact that several GAL4 drivers directed expression to the proximity of the PDF dorsal terminals, some of the selected lines did not result in reconstituted GFP signal (Gorostaza, 2014).

Quite remarkably, a proportion of the GAL4 lines showed GFP+ signal only at a specific time point. One such example is line 3-86, where reconstitution was detected in most of the brains analyzed at ZT2, but not at nighttime. Being able to identify putative postsynaptic contacts to the sLNvs in the early morning is consistent with the observation of a higher number of BRP+ active zones in the early day. This enhancer trap spans different neuropils, such as the mushroom body (MB) lobes and lateral horn, and directs expression to particularly high levels in the PI, a structure that has recently been implicated in the rhythmic control of locomotor activity. In fact, some yet unidentified somas in the PI appear to arborize profusely near the PDF dorsal terminals, underscoring a potential link between the two neuronal groups. These direct contacts are unlikely to be the ones reported by Mai179-GAL4; pdf-GAL80 since those connect to the sLNv neurons preferentially at night. Interestingly, a subset of neurons in the PI is relevant in mediating the arousal promoting signal from octopamine; in addition, sleep promoting signals are also derived from a different subset of neurons in the PI, opening the attractive possibility that both centers could be under circadian modulation (Gorostaza, 2014).

GRASP analysis also uncovered a different neuronal cluster (4-59) that contacts PDF neurons preferentially during the early night (ZT14), which is in itself striking, since this time point corresponds to that with fewer arborizations and an overall decrease in the number of synapses. This enhancer trap is expressed in the MBs, subesophagic ganglion, antennal lobes, and accessory medulla. Among those structures, the MBs are important for higher-order sensory integration and learning in insects. Interestingly, circadian modulation of short-term memory and memory retrieval after sleep deprivation has been reported; short-term memory was found to peak around ZT15-ZT17, coinciding with the window of GFP reconstitution, thus providing a functional connection to the synaptic plasticity observed. To corroborate whether there is a direct contact between the two neuronal clusters, the extensively used GAL4 driver OK107, which is expressed in the α'/β'and the γ lobes of the MBs and to a lower extent in the PI, was employed for GRASP analysis. Surprisingly, reconstituted GFP signal could be observed at every time point analyzed, suggesting that MB lobes contact PDF neurons throughout the day but that specific clusters (for example those highlighted by the 4-59 line) establish plastic, time-of-day-dependent physical contact with PDF neurons (Gorostaza, 2014).

It was next asked whether these prospective postsynaptic targets of PDF neurons could play a role in the output pathway controlling rhythmic locomotor activity. To address this possibility, the impact of adult-specific alteration of excitability of distinct neuronal groups was examined through expression of TRPA1. Interestingly, adult-specific depolarization of specific neuronal populations triggered a clear deconsolidation of the rhythmic pattern of activity, which resulted in less-rhythmic flies accompanied by a significant decrease in the strength of the underlying rhythm. These results lend support to the notion that the underlying neuronal clusters are relevant in the control of rest/activity cycles (Gorostaza, 2014).

Over the years, it has become increasingly clear that the circadian clock modulates structural properties of different cells. In fact, a number of years ago, it was reported that the projections of a subset of core pacemaker fly PDF+ and mammalian VIP+ neurons undergo structural remodeling on daily basis. The work presented in this study lends support to the original hypothesis that circadian plasticity represents a means of encoding time-of-day information. By changing their connectivity, PDF neurons could drive time-specific physiological processes. As new synapses assemble while others are dismantled, the information flux changes, allowing PDF neurons to promote or inhibit different processes at the same time. This type of plasticity adds a new level to the complex information encoded in neural circuits, where PDF neurons could not only modulate the strength in the connectivity between different partners, but also define which neuronal groups could be part of the circadian network along the day. Although further analysis of the underlying process is ensured, evidence so far supports the claim that structural plasticity is an important circadian output (Gorostaza, 2014).

Aging has been linked with decreased neural plasticity and memory formation in humans and in laboratory model species such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. This study examined plastic responses following social experience in Drosophila as a high-throughput method to identify interventions that prevent these impairments. Young (5-day old) or aged (20-day old) adult female Drosophila were housed in socially enriched or isolated environments, then assayed for changes in sleep and for structural markers of synaptic terminal growth in the ventral lateral neurons (LNVs) of the circadian clock. When young flies are housed in a socially enriched environment, they exhibit synaptic elaboration within a component of the circadian circuitry, the LNVs, which is followed by increased sleep. Aged flies, however, no longer exhibit either of these plastic changes. Because of the tight correlation between neural plasticity and ensuing increases in sleep, sleep after enrichment was used as a high-throughput marker for neural plasticity to identify interventions that prolong youthful plasticity in aged flies. To validate this strategy, three independent genetic manipulations were used that delay age-related losses in plasticity: (1) elevation of dopaminergic signaling, (2) over-expression of the serum response factor transcription factor blistered (bs) in the LNVs, and (3) reduction of the Imd immune signaling pathway. These findings provide proof-of-principle evidence that measuring changes in sleep in flies after social enrichment may provide a highly scalable assay for the study of age-related deficits in synaptic plasticity. These studies demonstrate that Drosophila provides a promising model for the study of age-related loss of neural plasticity and begin to identify genes that might be manipulated to delay the onset of functional senescence (Donlea, 2014a).

All organisms have to adapt to acute as well as to regularly occurring changes in the environment. To deal with these major challenges organisms evolved two fundamental mechanisms: the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, a major stress pathway for signaling stressful events, and circadian clocks to prepare for the daily environmental changes. Both systems respond sensitively to light. Recent studies in vertebrates and fungi indicate that p38 is involved in light-signaling to the circadian clock providing an interesting link between stress-induced and regularly rhythmic adaptations of animals to the environment, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms remained largely unknown. This study demonstrates by immunocytochemical means that p38 is expressed in Drosophila melanogaster's clock neurons and that it is activated in a clock-dependent manner. Surprisingly, it was found that p38 is most active under darkness and, besides its circadian activation, additionally gets inactivated by light. Moreover, locomotor activity recordings revealed that p38 is essential for a wild-type timing of evening activity and for maintaining approximately 24 h behavioral rhythms under constant darkness: flies with reduced p38 activity in clock neurons, delayed evening activity and lengthened the period of their free-running rhythms. Furthermore, nuclear translocation of the clock protein Period was significantly delayed on the expression of a dominant-negative form of p38b in Drosophila's most important clock neurons. Western Blots revealed that p38 affects the phosphorylation degree of Period, what is likely the reason for its effects on nuclear entry of Period. In vitro kinase assays confirmed the Western Blot results and point to p38 as a potential 'clock kinase' phosphorylating Period. Taken together, these findings indicate that the p38 MAP Kinase is an integral component of the core circadian clock of Drosophila in addition to playing a role in stress-input pathways (Dusik, 2014 - Open access: 25144774).

Class IIa histone deacetylases (HDACs) regulate the activity of many transcription factors to influence liver gluconeogenesis and the development of specialized cells including muscle, neurons and lymphocytes. This study describes a conserved role for class IIa HDACs in sustaining robust circadian behavioral rhythms in Drosophila and cellular rhythms in mammalian cells. In mouse fibroblasts, over-expression of HDAC5 severely disrupts transcriptional rhythms of core clock genes. HDAC5 over-expression decreases BMAL1 acetylation on Lys537 and pharmacological inhibition of Class IIa HDACs increases BMAL1 acetylation. Furthermore, cyclical nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of HDAC5 was observed in mouse fibroblasts that is characteristically circadian. Mutation of the Drosophila homolog HDAC4 impairs locomotor activity rhythms of flies and decreases period mRNA levels. RNAi-mediated knockdown of HDAC4 in Drosophila clock cells also dampens circadian function. Given that the localization of Class IIa HDACs is signal-regulated and influenced by Ca2+ and cAMP signals, these findings offer a mechanism by which extracellular stimuli that generate these signals can feed into the molecular clock machinery (Fogg, 2014).

It is known that endocytosis and/or vesicle recycling mechanisms are essential in adult Drosophila glial cells for the neuronal control of circadian locomotor activity. The goal of this study was to identify specific glial vesicle trafficking, recycling, or release factors that are required for rhythmic behavior. From a glia-specific, RNAi-based genetic screen, eight glial factors were identified and were found to be required for normally robust circadian rhythms in either a light-dark cycle or in constant dark conditions. In particular, it was shown that conditional knockdown of the ROP vesicle release factor in adult glial cells results in arrhythmic behavior. Immunostaining for ROP reveals reduced protein in glial cell processes and an accumulation of the Par Domain Protein 1ε (PDP1ε) clock output protein in the small lateral clock neurons. These results suggest that glia modulate rhythmic circadian behavior by secretion of factors that act on clock neurons to regulate a clock output factor (Ng, 2015).

Nutrient sensing pathways adjust metabolism and physiological functions in response to food intake. For example, sugar feeding promotes lipogenesis by activating glycolytic and lipogenic genes through the Mondo/ChREBP-Mlx transcription factor complex. Concomitantly, other metabolic routes are inhibited, but the mechanisms of transcriptional repression upon sugar sensing have remained elusive. This study characterizes cabut (cbtDrosophila. cbt was rapidly induced upon sugar feeding through direct regulation by Mondo-Mlx. CBT repressed several metabolic targets in response to sugar feeding, including both isoforms of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (pepck). Deregulation of pepck1 (CG17725) in mlx mutants underlay imbalance of glycerol and glucose metabolism as well as developmental lethality. Furthermore, cbt provided a regulatory link between nutrient sensing and the circadian clock. Specifically, a subset of genes regulated by the circadian clock were also targets of CBT. Moreover, perturbation of CBT levels led to deregulation of the circadian transcriptome and circadian behavioral patterns (Bartok, 2015).

This study establishes the Drosophila klf10 ortholog, cbt, as a repressive effector of the sugar sensing transcriptional network. Specifically, (1) cbt expression is activated by dietary sugars in mlx-dependent manner; (2) cbt is a direct target of Mlx; (3) many key metabolic genes are rapidly repressed by CBT upon sugar feeding; (4) CBT binds to the proximity of pepck genes; (5) pepck1 is dispensable for viability, but essential for glucose and glycerol homeostasis; (6) deregulation of pepck1 underlies lethality of mlx mutants, and (7) CBT modulates the circadian system by controlling the cycling of a subset of circadian output genes. Based on these findings, a model is proposed in which CBT serves as a repressive downstream effector of the Mondo-Mlx-mediated sugar sensing, which contributes to diet-induced physiological readjustment, including flux of central carbon metabolism and cycling of metabolic circadian clock targets (Bartok, 2015).

By uncovering the CBT-mediated repression of pepck isoforms downstream of Mondo-Mlx, This study provides a mechanistic explanation to the regulation of cataplerosis in response to intracellular sugar sensing. Drosophila Mondo-Mlx is known to drive activation of glycolysis, for example, by promoting the expression of phosphofructokinase 2. Placing the rate-limiting enzymes of gluconeogenesis downstream, the same sensor mechanism that activates glycolysis provides an elegant mechanism to adjust the direction of flux of glucose metabolism in response to sugar input. Such simple network topology provides a robust safeguard against loss of energy in futile cycles caused by simultaneous high activity of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis (Bartok, 2015).

Mondo-Mlx also activates the expression of lipogenic gene expression (e.g., FAS and ACC) in order to promote conversion of excess sugars into triglycerides. In addition to fatty acid moieties, which are built by FAS and ACC, triglyceride biosynthesis requires glycerol-3-phosphate. Substrate-labeling studies in mammals have shown that a significant portion of glycerol in triglycerides is in fact derived from the PEPCK-dependent glyceroneogenesis pathway. This is supported by the current findings showing significantly lower circulating glycerol levels in well-fed pepck1-mutant larvae. The impact of glyceroneogenesis on triglyceride homeostasis is also likely reflected in the reduced triglyceride levels in pepck1 mutant flies. Similarly, mammalian studies have shown that elevated expression of PEPCK-C in adipose tissue increases fat mass, whereas reduced PEPCK-C expression leads to lower fat content. Moreover, in humans, adipose tissue expression of PEPCK-C positively correlates with adiposity and plasma triacylglycerol levels. Control of pepck through CBT places both branches of triglyceride biosynthesis under Mondo-Mlx. Inhibition of PEPCK-mediated cataplerosis upon high sugar intake allows maximal conversion of excess glucose-6-phosphate into the glycerol moieties of triglycerides through the glycolytic route of glycerol-3-phosphate synthesis. Simultaneous impairment of de novo lipogenesis and failure to suppress glyceroneogenesis likely leads to the breakage of glycerol homeostasis and massive accumulation of circulating glycerol, as observed in mlx mutants. Interestingly, a recent study showed that fasting serum levels of glycerol predicted development of hyperglycemia and type 2 diabetes. It will be interesting to learn whether this diagnostic marker is associated with deregulation of pepck isoforms and the activity of ChREBP/MondoA-Mlx and Klf10-dependent transcriptional network (Bartok, 2015).

According to the current view, Mondo/ChREBP and Mlx act mainly in nutrient sensing and metabolic regulation. In contrast, CBT and its human ortholog Klf10 are multifunctional transcription factors. In Drosophila, cbt was originally identified as a developmental regulator with an essential function in dorsal closure early in development. Moreover, cbt is a direct transcriptional target of the circadian transcription factor CLK, and this study establishes it is deeply involved in the control of the circadian transcriptional network. While CBT overexpression leads to strong behavioral abnormalities, they are not accompanied by noticeable changes in the oscillation of the core clock components in the fly heads. This suggests that it reflects a specific effect on circadian output. If the behavioral patterns were due to an effect in the general health of the animal, deregulation of core clock components would be expected. Despite the null effect of cbt overexpression in the expression of core clock genes, this study observed that cbt modulates the expression of an important subset of CLK and circadian-controlled genes, most of which are involved in metabolic functions. Strong effects of cbt downregulation were observed in circadian oscillation of metabolic genes, establishing CBT as a new regulator of the circadian transcriptome. Interestingly, downregulation of CBT in circadian cells decreases the amplitude of oscillation of a large number of circadian-controlled genes, providing a direct link between food intake, circadian gene expression, and behavior. Given the established link between feeding time, metabolism, and the circadian system in Drosophila, it will be interesting to further analyze the importance of CBT in this coordination (Bartok, 2015).

Although the functional analysis in this study largely focused on the metabolic role of pepck regulation by Mondo-Mlx-CBT network, microarray and RNA-seq analyses revealed other interesting CBT transcriptional targets including bmm. This gene is an ortholog of the human adipocyte triglyceride lipase gene, and it is an essential regulator of triglyceride stores in Drosophila. bmm expression is positively regulated by the Forkhead transcription factor FoxO, which is activated during starvation through inhibition of insulin-like signaling. The sugar-dependent repression of bmm expression by CBT is in perfect agreement with the lipogenic role of Mondo-Mlx (Bartok, 2015).

It has been proposed that CBT mammalian ortholog Klf10 acts as a negative feedback regulator for ChREBP-activated genes, including lipogenic genes FAS and ACC. This conclusion was based on suppression of ChREBP-activated transcription upon Klf10 overexpression in primary liver cells. This model was tested by analyzing the expression of Mondo-Mlx targets FAS and ACC, but no effect was observed by cbtRNAi. In contrast, genome-wide expression analysis of CBT loss-of-function flies revealed that the CBT-dependent branch of the sugar sensing transcriptional network mediates rapid repression of gene expression. It is interesting to note that while most metabolic targets of CBT are rapidly and persistently downregulated, cbt expression is rapidly attenuated during prolonged sugar feeding. This is likely due to the negative autoregulation demonstrated earlier and supported by ChIP data. The finding that most of the identified CBT-dependent mRNAs are stably repressed for many hours after cbt levels have significantly attenuated suggests that CBT-mediated repression might involve regulation at the chromatin level. This is in agreement with the possible involvement of Sin3A in CBT-mediated repression. Through such persistent regulatory marks, sugar feeding may have a long-lasting influence on metabolic homeostasis, which is a topic that certainly deserves to be more thoroughly analyzed in the future (Bartok, 2015).

In sum, this work provides a mechanistic explanation for the transcriptional repression upon Mondo-Mlx-mediated intracellular sugar sensing through the transcription factor CBT. The CBT-mediated repressive branch of the sugar sensing network is involved in securing the mutually exclusive activity of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis and coordination of fatty acid and glycerol biosynthesis with respect to dietary sugar intake. This study also establishes a mechanism for nutrient input into the circadian gene expression. As intracellular sugar-sensing and circadian regulation are highly conserved processes, the insight achieved in this study in the genetically tractable Drosophila model should provide a new conceptual framework for forthcoming studies in human subjects and mammalian model systems (Bartok, 2015).

Nocturnin (NOCT) is a rhythmically expressed protein that regulates metabolism under the control of circadian clock. It has been proposed that NOCT deadenylates and regulates metabolic enzyme mRNAs. However, in contrast to other deadenylases, purified NOCT lacks the deadenylase activity. To identify the substrate of NOCT, a mass spectrometry screen was conducted, and NOCT was found to specifically and directly convert the dinucleotide NADP(+) into NAD(+) and NADPH into NADH. Further, it was demonstrated that the Drosophila NOCT ortholog, Curled, has the same enzymatic activity. The 2.7 A crystal structure of the human NOCT*NADPH complex, revealed that NOCT recognizes the chemically unique ribose-phosphate backbone of the metabolite, placing the 2'-terminal phosphate productively for removal. Evidence is provided for NOCT targeting to mitochondria and it is proposed that NADP(H) regulation, which takes place at least in part in mitochondria, establishes the molecular link between circadian clock and metabolism (Estrella, 2019).

Metabolic state is a potent modulator of sleep and circadian behavior and animals acutely modulate their sleep in accordance with internal energy stores and food availability. Growing evidence suggests the fat body is a critical regulator of complex behaviors, but little is known about the genes that function within the fat body to regulate sleep. To identify molecular factors functioning in non-neuronal tissues to regulate sleep, an RNAi screen selectively knocking down genes in the fat body. Knockdown was performed of Phosphoribosylformylglycinamidine synthase/Pfas(Ade2), a highly conserved gene involved the biosynthesis of purines, sleep regulation and energy stores. Flies heterozygous for multiple Ade2 mutations are also short sleepers and this effect is partially rescued by restoring Ade2 to the Drosophila fat body. Targeted knockdown of Ade2 in the fat body does not alter arousal threshold or the homeostatic response to sleep deprivation, suggesting a specific role in modulating baseline sleep duration. Together, these findings suggest Ade2 functions within the fat body to promote both sleep and energy storage, providing a functional link between these processes (Yurgel, 2018).

Post-translational modification of histones, such as histone methylation controlled by specific methyltransferases and demethylases, play critical roles in modulating chromatin dynamics and transcription in eukaryotes. Misregulation of histone methylation can lead to aberrant gene expression, thereby contributing to abnormal development and diseases such as cancer. As such, the mammalian lysine-specific demethylase 2 (KDM2) homologs, KDM2A and KDM2B, are either oncogenic or tumor suppressive depending on specific pathological contexts. However, the role of KDM2 proteins during development remains poorly understood. Unlike vertebrates, Drosophila has only one KDM2 homolog (dKDM2), but its functions in vivo remain elusive due to the complexities of the existing mutant alleles. To address this problem, two dKdm2 null alleles were generated using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique. These dKdm2 homozygous mutants are fully viable and fertile, with no developmental defects observed under laboratory conditions. However, the dKdm2 null mutant adults display defects in circadian rhythms. Most of the dKdm2 mutants become arrhythmic under constant darkness, while the circadian period of the rhythmic mutant flies is approximately 1 h shorter than the control. Interestingly, lengthened circadian periods are observed when dKdm2 is overexpressed in circadian pacemaker neurons. Taken together, these results demonstrate that dKdm2 is not essential for viability; instead, dKDM2 protein plays important roles in regulating circadian rhythms in Drosophila. Further analyses of the molecular mechanisms of dKDM2 and its orthologs in vertebrates regarding the regulation of circadian rhythms will advance understanding of the epigenetic regulations of circadian clocks (Zheng, 2018).

The environmental light-dark cycle is the dominant cue that maintains 24-h biological rhythms. In Drosophila, light entrainment is mediated by the photosensitive protein Cryptochrome. This study analyzed light-induced global transcriptional changes in the fly's head by using microarrays. Flies were subjected to a 30-min light pulse during the early night (3 h after lights-off). 200 genes were identified whose transcripts are significantly altered in response to the light pulse. Analysis suggests the involvement of at least six biological processes in light-induced delay phase shifts of rhythmic activities, include signalling, ion channel transport, receptor activity, synaptic organisation, signal transduction, and chromatin remodelling. Using RNAi, the expression of 22 genes was downregulated in the clock neurons, leading to significant effects on circadian output. For example, while continuous light normally causes arrhythmicity in wild-type flies, the knockdown of Kr-h1, Nipped-A, Thor, nrv1, Nf1, CG11155 (ionotropic glutamate receptor), and Fmr1 results in flies that are rhythmic, suggesting a disruption in the light input pathway to the clock. These analyses provides a first insight into the early responsive genes that are activated by light and their contribution to light resetting of the Drosophila clock (Adewoye, 2015).

Circadian clocks regulate membrane excitability in master pacemaker neurons to control daily rhythms of sleep and wake. This study found that two distinctly timed electrical drives collaborate to impose rhythmicity on Drosophila clock neurons. In the morning, a voltage-independent sodium conductance via the NA/NALCN ion channel Narrow abdomen depolarizes these neurons. This current is driven by the rhythmic expression of NCA localization factor-1 (CG10420), linking the molecular clock to ion channel function. In the evening, basal potassium currents peak to silence clock neurons. Remarkably, daily antiphase cycles of sodium and potassium currents also drive mouse clock neuron rhythms. Thus, this study reveals an evolutionarily ancient strategy for the neural mechanisms that govern daily sleep and wake (Flourakis, 2015).

The role of circadian clock in timing daily behaviors is widely acknowledged, and while empirical evidence suggests that clock period is correlated with the preferred phase of a rhythmic behavior (chronotype), other clock properties have also been hypothesized to underlie chronotype variation. This study reports that fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster populations exhibiting evening emergence chronotype (late) are characterized by higher incidence of behavioral arrhythmicity in constant dim light, wider range of entrainment, reduced rates of re-entrainment to simulated jet-lag and higher amplitude of both entrained and free-running rhythms as compared to those exhibiting morning emergence chronotype (early). These results thus highlight the role of circadian clock properties such as zeitgeber sensitivity, amplitude and coupling in driving chronotype variation (Nikhil, 2015).

Even though the rhythm in adult emergence and rhythm in locomotor activity are two different rhythmic phenomena that occur at distinct life-stages of the fly life cycle, previous studies have hinted at similarities in certain aspects of the organisation of the circadian clock driving these two rhythms. For instance, the period gene plays an important regulatory role in both rhythms. Previous work showed that selection on timing of adult emergence behaviour in populations of Drosophila melanogaster leads to the co-evolution of temperature sensitivity of circadian clocks driving eclosion. In this study, it was asked if temperature sensitivity of the locomotor activity rhythm has evolved in the selected populations with divergent timing of adult emergence rhythm, with the goal of understanding the extent of similarity (or lack of it) in circadian organisation between the two rhythms. In response to simulated jetlag with temperature cycles, late chronotypes (populations selected for predominant emergence during dusk) indeed re-entrain faster than early chronotypes (populations selected for predominant emergence during dawn) to 6-h phase-delays, thereby indicating enhanced sensitivity of the activity/rest clock to temperature cues in these stocks (entrainment is the synchronisation of internal rhythms to cyclic environmental time-cues). Additionally, it was found that late chronotypes show higher plasticity of phases across regimes, day-to-day stability in phases and amplitude of entrainment, all indicative of enhanced temperature sensitive activity/rest rhythms. These results highlight remarkably similar organisation principles between emergence and activity/rest rhythms (Abhilash, 2020).

It is a common notion that phases-of-entrainment of circadian rhythms are adaptive, in that they enable organisms to time their behavior to specific times of the day to enhance their fitness. Previous studies have shown that selection for morning and evening phasing of adult emergence in Drosophila melanogaster populations leads to divergent coevolution of free-running periods of both adult emergence and activity/rest rhythms, such that early (morning) and late (evening) adult emergence chronotypes have shorter and longer circadian periods, respectively. However, there is little evidence to support the notion that phases-of-entrainment in these fly stocks is indeed driven by non-parametric mechanisms. Extending from a previous hypothesis based on anecdotal evidence for parametric mechanisms being in play, this study explored the extent of non-parametric and parametric effects of light on circadian clocks of early and late chronotypes. Predictions of the non-parametric model of entrainment were systematically tested, the Circadian Integrated Response Characteristic (CIRC) of the stocks , the effect of light pulses on amplitude of the behavior and the effect of duration of light pulse on phase-shifts of the clock were assessed were sketched. In addition to the differences in clock period, divergent CIRCs contribute to entrainment of the activity/rest rhythm. The differences in CIRC could be explained by differential transient amplitude responses and duration responses of the clock's phase between the early and late chronotypes. This study thus highlights the role of amplitude responses and phase-shifts due to long durations of light in entrainment of circadian rhythms of D. melanogaster (Abhilash, 2020).

Light is the primary signal that calibrates circadian neural circuits and thus coordinates daily physiological and behavioral rhythms with solar entrainment cues. Drosophila and mammalian circadian circuits consist of diverse populations of cellular oscillators that exhibit a wide range of dynamic light responses, periods, phases, and degrees of synchrony. How heterogeneous circadian circuits can generate robust physiological rhythms while remaining flexible enough to respond to synchronizing stimuli has long remained enigmatic. Cryptochrome is a short-wavelength photoreceptor that is endogenously expressed in approximately half of Drosophila circadian neurons. This study applied analysis of real-time bioluminescence experimental data to show detailed dynamic ensemble representations of whole circadian circuit light entrainment at single neuron resolution. Organotypic whole-brain explants were either maintained in constant darkness (DD) for 6 days or exposed to a phase-advancing light pulse on the second day. Stronger circadian oscillators were found to support robust overall circuit rhythmicity in DD, whereas weaker oscillators can be pushed toward transient desynchrony and damped amplitude to facilitate a new state of phase-shifted network synchrony. Additionally, mathematical modeling was used to examine how a network composed of distinct oscillator types can give rise to complex dynamic signatures in DD conditions and in response to simulated light pulses. Simulations suggest that complementary coupling mechanisms and a combination of strong and weak oscillators may enable a robust yet flexible circadian network that promotes both synchrony and entrainment. A more complete understanding of how the properties of oscillators and their signaling mechanisms facilitate their distinct roles in light entrainment may allow direction and augmentation of the circadian system to speed recovery from jet lag, shift work, and seasonal affective disorder (Roberts, 2016).

Robustness, the ability to maintain stable biological phenotypes across environments, is thought to be of adaptive value. Previous studies have reported higher intrinsic activity levels and power of rhythm in Drosophila populations (stocks) reared in constant darkness (DD stocks) as compared to those reared in constant light (LL stocks) and 12:12-h light-dark cycles (LD stocks) for over 19 years (approximately 330 generations). The current study intended to examine whether the enhanced levels of activity observed in DD stocks persist under various environments such as photoperiods, ambient temperatures, non-24-h light-dark (LD) cycles, and semi-natural conditions (SN). DD stocks largely retain their phenotype of enhanced activity levels across most of the above-mentioned environments suggesting the evolution of robust circadian clocks in DD stocks. Furthermore, the change in peak activity levels upon entrainment was not significantly different across the three stocks for any of the examined environmental conditions. This suggests that the enhancement of activity levels in DD stocks is not due to differential sensitivity to environment. Thus, these results suggest that rearing in constant darkness (DD) leads to evolution of robust circadian clocks suggesting a possible adaptive value of possessing such rhythms under constant dark environments (Shindey, 2016).

The level of rescue of clock function in genetically arrhythmic Drosophila melanogaster hosts using interspecific clock gene transformation was used to study the putative intermolecular coevolution between interacting clock proteins. Among them PER and TIM are the two important negative regulators of the circadian clock feedback loop. This study transformed either the D. pseudoobscura per or tim transgenes into the corresponding arrhythmic D. melanogaster mutant (per⁰¹ or tim⁰¹) and observed >50% rhythmicity but the period of activity rhythm was either longer (D. pseudoobscura-per) or shorter than 24h (D. pseudoobscura-tim) compared to controls. By introducing both transgenes simultaneously into double mutants, it was observed that the period of the activity rhythm was rescued by the pair of hemizygous transgenes (~24h). These flies also showed a more optimal level of temperature compensation for the period. Under LD 12:12 these flies have a D. pseudoobscura like activity profile with the absence of morning anticipation as well as a very prominent earlier evening peak of activity rhythm. These observation are consistent with the view that TIM and PER form a heterospecific coevolved module at least for the circadian period of activity rhythms. However the strength of rhythmicity was reduced by having both transgenes present, so while evidence for a coevolution between PER and TIM is observed for some characters it is not for others (Noreen, 2018).

Most organisms possess time-keeping devices called circadian clocks. At the molecular level, circadian clocks consist of transcription-translation feedback loops (TTFLs). Although some components of the negative TTFL are conserved across the animals, important differences exist between typical models, such as mouse and the fruit fly. In Drosophila, the key components are PERIOD (PER) and TIMELESS (TIM-d) proteins, whereas the mammalian clock relies on PER and CRYPTOCHROME (CRY-m). Importantly, how the clock has maintained functionality during evolutionary transitions between different states remains elusive. Therefore, this study systematically described the circadian clock gene setup in major bilaterian lineages and identified marked lineage-specific differences in their clock constitution. Then a thorough functional analysis was performed of the linden bug Pyrrhocoris apterus, an insect species comprising features characteristic of both the Drosophila and the mammalian clocks. Unexpectedly, the knockout of timeless-d, a gene essential for the clock ticking in Drosophila, did not compromise rhythmicity in P. apterus, it only accelerated its pace. Furthermore, silencing timeless-m, the ancestral timeless type ubiquitously present across animals, resulted in a mild gradual loss of rhythmicity, supporting its possible participation in the linden bug clock, which is consistent with timeless-m role suggested by research on mammalian models. The dispensability of timeless-d in P. apterus allows drawing a scenario in which the clock has remained functional at each step of transition from an ancestral state to the TIM-d-independent PER + CRY-m system operating in extant vertebrates, including humans (Kotwica-Rolinska, 2022).

Circadian clocks help animals to be active at the optimal time of the day whereby for most species the daily light-dark cycle is the most important zeitgeber for their circadian clock. In this respect, long arctic summer days are particularly challenging as light is present almost 24 h per day, and continuous light makes the circadian clocks of many animals arrhythmic. This is especially true for the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, which possesses a very light-sensitive clock. The blue-light photoreceptor Cryptochrome (CRY) and the clock protein Timeless (TIM) are the light-sensitive components of the circadian clock and are responsible for constant light-induced arrhythmicity even at very low light intensities. Nevertheless, D. melanogaster was able to spread from its tropical origin and invade northern latitudes. This study tested whether a natural polymorphism at the timeless (tim) locus, s-tim and ls-tim, helped adaptation to very long photoperiods. The recently evolved natural allele, ls-tim, encodes a longer, less light sensitive form of TIM (L-TIM) in addition to the shorter (S-TIM) form, the only form encoded by the ancient s-tim allele. ls-tim has evolved in southeastern Italy and slowly spread to higher latitudes. L-TIM is known to interact less efficiently with CRY as compared with S-TIM. The locomotor activity patterns of ~40 wild s-tim and ls-tim isofemale lines caught at different latitudes was measured under simulated high-latitude summer light conditions (continuous light or long photoperiods with 20-h daily light). It was found that the ls-tim lines were significantly more rhythmic under continuous light than the s-tim lines. Importantly, the ls-tim lines can delay their evening activity under long photoperiods, a behavioral adaptation that appears to be optimal under high-latitude conditions. These observations suggest that the functional gain associated with ls-tim may drive the northern spread of this allele by directional selection (Deppisch, 2022).

Light is one of the strongest environmental time cues for entraining endogenous circadian rhythms. Emerging evidence indicates that CREB-regulated transcription co-activator 1 (CRTC1) is a key player in this pathway, stimulating light-induced Period1 (Per1) transcription in mammalian clocks. This study demonstrates a light-independent role of Drosophila CRTC in sustaining circadian behaviors. Genomic deletion of the crtc locus causes long but poor locomotor rhythms in constant darkness. Overexpression or RNA interference-mediated depletion of CRTC in circadian pacemaker neurons similarly impairs the free-running behavioral rhythms, implying that Drosophila clocks are sensitive to the dosage of CRTC. The crtc null mutation delays the overall phase of circadian gene expression yet it remarkably dampens light-independent oscillations of TIMELESS (TIM) proteins in the clock neurons. In fact, CRTC overexpression enhances CLOCK/CYCLE (CLK/CYC)-activated transcription from tim but not per promoter in clock-less S2 cells whereas CRTC depletion suppresses it. Consistently, TIM overexpression partially but significantly rescues the behavioral rhythms in crtc mutants. Taken together, these data suggest that CRTC is a novel co-activator for the CLK/CYC-activated tim transcription to coordinate molecular rhythms with circadian behaviors over a 24-hour time-scale. The study proposes that CRTC-dependent clock mechanisms have co-evolved with selective clock genes among different species (Kim, 2016).

CREB-dependent transcription has long been implicated in different aspects of circadian gene expression. In mammalian clocks, light exposure triggers intracellular signaling pathways that activate CREB-dependent Per1 transcription, thereby adjusting the circadian phase of master circadian pacemaker neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The phase-resetting process involves the specific CREB coactivator CRTC1 and its negative regulator SIK1, constituting a negative feedback in the photic entrainment via a CREB pathway (Sakamoto, 2013; Jagannath, 2013). This report demonstrates a novel role of Drosophila CRTC that serves to coordinate circadian gene expression with 24-hour locomotor rhythms even in the absence of light. CRTC may regulate several clock-relevant genes, including those clock output genes that might be involved in the rhythmic arborizations and PDF cycling of the circadian pacemaker neurons. However, tim transcription was identified as one of the primary targets of Drosophila CRTC to sustain circadian rhythms in the free-running conditions, thus defining its light-independent clock function (Kim, 2016).

CREB could employ another transcriptional coactivator CBP (CREB-binding protein) to activate CRE-dependent transcription. In fact, CBP is a rather general coactivator recruited to gene promoters by other DNA-binding transcription factors. Previous studies have shown that Drosophila CBP associates with CLK, titrating its transcriptional activity. Mammalian CBP and the closely related coactivator p300 also form a complex with CLOCK-BMAL1, a homolog of the Drosophila CLK-CYC heterodimer, to stimulate their transcriptional activity. One possible explanation for CRTC-activated tim transcription is that Drosophila CRTC may analogously target the CLK-CYC heterodimer to stimulate CLK-CYC-tivate CRE-dependent transcription. Under these circumstances, a circadian role of light-sensitive TIM might have degenerated, while-induced clock genes. Moreover, CRTC associates with the bZIP domain in CREB protein, whereas CBP/p300 binds CREB through the phosphorylated KID domain, indicating that they might not necessarily target the same transcription factors apart from CREB. Finally, a protein complex of CLK and CRTC could not be detected in Drosophila S2 cells. Thus, it is likely that CRTC and CBP/p300 play unique roles in circadian transcription through their interactions with different DNA-binding transcription factors (Kim, 2016).

If CRTC augments CLK-CYC-dependent tim transcription indirectly, then why do crtc effects require CLK? A recent study suggested that mammalian CLOCK-BMAL1 may regulate the rhythmic access of other DNA-binding transcription factors to their target promoters in the context of chromatin, acting as a pioneer-like transcription factor. Given the structural and functional homology between Drosophila CLK-CYC and mammalian CLOCK-BMAL1, the presence of CLK-CYC in the tim promoter might allow the recruitment of additional transcription factors (e.g., CREB) and their co-activators including CRTC for maximal tim transcription. The transcriptional context of tim promoter might thus define its sensitivity to crtc effects among other clock promoters. In addition, the differential assembly of transcription factors on the tim promoter could explain tissue-specific effects of crtc on TIM oscillations (i.e., circadian pacemaker neurons versus peripheral clock tissues). Interestingly, chromatin immunoprecipitation with V5-tagged CLK protein revealed that CLK-CYC heterodimers associate with both tim and Sik2 gene promoters in fly heads. In LD cycles, however, their rhythmic binding to the Sik2 promoter is phase-delayed by ~4.5 hours compared with that to the tim promoter. These modes of transcriptional regulation may gate crtc effects on tim transcription in a clock-dependent manner, particularly in the increasing phase of tim transcription (Kim, 2016).

Transcription from CREB-responsive reporter genes shows daily oscillations, both in Drosophila and mammals, implicating this transcriptional strategy in the evolution of molecular clocks. In fact, cAMP signaling and CRE-dependent transcription constitute the integral components of core molecular clocks, serving to regulate daily rhythmic transcription of circadian clock genes. For instance, reciprocal regulation of dCREB2 and per at the transcription level has been reported to sustain free-running circadian rhythms in Drosophila. During fasting in mammals, a transcriptional program for hepatic gluconeogenesis is induced by CREB phosphorylation and CRTC2 dephosphorylation. Fasting-activated CREB-CRTC2 then stimulates Bmal1 expression61, whereas CLOCK-BMAL1-induced CRY rhythmically gates CREB activity in this process by modulating G protein-coupled receptor activity and inhibiting cAMP-induced CREB phosphorylation62. This molecular feedback circuit thus mutually links mammalian clocks and energy metabolism in terms of CREB-dependent transcription (Kim, 2016).

On the basis of these observations, a model is proposed for the evolution of CRTC-dependent clocks to explain the distinctive circadian roles of CRTC homologs (see A model for the evolution of CRTC-dependent clocks). CRTC is a transcriptional effector that integrates various cellular signals (Altarejos, 2011). It was reasoned that ancestral clocks may have employed CREB-CRTC-mediated transcription to sense extracellular time cues cell-autonomously and integrate this timing information directly into the earliest transcription-translation feedback loop (TTFL). This strategy would have generated simple but efficient molecular clocks to tune free-running molecular rhythms in direct response to environmental zeitgebers, such as light and the availability of nutrients. A circadian role of CRTC then has differentially evolved along with a selective set of clock targets. In poikilothermic Drosophila, light is accessible directly to circadian pacemaker neurons in the adult fly brain. Therefore, TIM degradation by the blue-light photoreceptor CRY plays a major role in the light entrainment of Drosophila clocks, although the photic induction of CLK/CYC-dependent tim transcription has been reported specifically at lower temperatures. Accordingly, Drosophila CRTC retained a constitutive co-activator function from the ancestral TTFL to support CLK/CYC-activated tim transcription and sustain free-running circadian behaviors. In homeothermic mammals, light input to the SCN is indirectly mediated by neurotransmitter release from presynaptic termini of the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Intracellular signaling relays in the SCN converge on the dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation of CRTC1 to activate CRE-dependent transcription. Under these circumstances, a circadian role of light-sensitive TIM might have degenerated, while per took over a role in the light-entrainment pathway by retaining CREB-CRTC1-dependent transcriptional regulation from the primitive TTFL. Consequently, mammalian clocks have lost a homolog of the Drosophila-like cry gene family, but instead evolved CRY homologs of the vertebrate-like cry gene family with transcriptional repressor activities in CLOCK-BMAL1-dependent transcription (Kim, 2016).

Regulation of metabolism and stress responses by neuronal CREB-CRTC-SIK pathways has been well documented in Drosophila. Given the demonstration of a circadian role of CRTC in the pacemaker neurons, it is possible that CRTC might sense metabolic cues in the context of circadian neural circuits to entrain molecular clocks cell-autonomously. Alternatively, but not exclusively, CRTC could participate in the regulation of clock-relevant metabolism as clock outputs from pacemaker neurons. These hypotheses remain to be validated in future studies (Kim, 2016).

Circadian clocks enable organisms to anticipate daily changes in the environment and coordinate temporal rhythms in physiology and behavior with the 24-hour day-night cycle. The robust cycling of circadian gene expression is critical for proper timekeeping, and is regulated by transcription factor binding, RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) recruitment and elongation, and post-transcriptional mechanisms. Recently, it has become clear that dynamic alterations in chromatin landscape at the level of histone posttranslational modification and nucleosome density facilitate rhythms in transcription factor recruitment and RNAPII activity, and are essential for progression through activating and repressive phases of circadian transcription. This study discusses the characterization of the Brahma (Brm) chromatin-remodeling protein in Drosophila in the context of circadian clock regulation. By dissecting its catalytic vs. non-catalytic activities, a model is proposed in which the non-catalytic activity of Brm functions to recruit repressive factors to limit the transcriptional output of Clock (Clk) during the active phase of circadian transcription, while the primary function of the ATP-dependent catalytic activity is to tune and prevent over-recruitment of negative regulators by increasing nucleosome density. Finally, ongoing efforts and investigative directions towards a deeper mechanistic understanding of transcriptional regulation of circadian gene expression at the chromatin level are described (Kwok, 2016).

The timing of behavior under natural light-dark conditions is a function of circadian clocks and photic input pathways, but a mechanistic understanding of how these pathways collaborate in animals is lacking. This study demonstrates in Drosophila that the Phosphatase of Regenerating Liver-1 (PRL-1) sets period length and behavioral phase gated by photic signals. PRL-1 knockdown in PDF clock neurons dramatically lengthens circadian period. PRL-1 mutants exhibit allele-specific interactions with the light and clock-regulated gene timeless (tim). Moreover, this study shows that PRL-1 promotes TIM accumulation and dephosphorylation. Interestingly, the PRL-1 mutant period lengthening is suppressed in constant light, and PRL-1 mutants display a delayed phase under short, but not long, photoperiod conditions. Thus, these studies reveal that PRL-1-dependent dephosphorylation of TIM is a core mechanism of the clock that sets period length and phase in darkness, enabling the behavioral adjustment to change day-night cycles (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

This study has identified a novel circadian clock gene PRL-1 that mediates the behavioral response to changes in photoperiod. Circadian regulation of this phosphatase provides a mechanism for mediating rhythmic phosphorylation, a widely conserved feature of circadian clocks. Reduction or loss-of-function in PRL-1 can induce potent effects on circadian period length even larger than those caused by the reduction of canonical clock genes. These effects are widely conserved and are evident even in human cells. PRL-1 selectively dephosphorylates and suppresses the accumulation of the light-sensitive clock component TIM. PRL-1 affects behavioral phase in short but not long photoperiods, revealing a novel mechanism for appropriate timing across ecologically relevant photoperiods (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

The data suggest PRL-1 plays an especially important role in setting period length comparable to or exceeding those of the canonical core clock components. RNAi knockdown of PRL-1 with two independent RNAi lines results in among the strongest RNAi-induced period-altering phenotypes seen in Drosophila with period lengths exceeding 28 h. Interestingly, the period effects observed through PRL-1 knockdown in the PDF-positive LNv (pdfGAL4) are larger than those observed with a broader circadian driver (timGAL4) or in the putative null allele of PRL-1, suggesting that PRL-1 may have distinct and even antagonistic period setting roles in different clock neurons. The other clock genes with RNAi effects comparable to PRL-1 are the regulatory beta subunit of the protein kinase CK2 and the E3 ubiquitin ligase circadian trip, further highlighting the role of post-translation modifications in determining period length (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

Several lines of evidence support the model that TIM is an in vivo target of PRL-1. PRL-1 mutants exhibit non-additive effects with a tim allele, tim^S1, suggesting PRL-1 and tim function within the same pathway. Non-additive genetic interactions with specific alleles can reflect functional, even direct biochemical, interactions such as between per and tim78 and between per and Dbt. Simple additive effects on period length with tim^UL flies probably reflect the fact that TIM^UL is stable and exhibits prolonged nuclear localization; therefore, stabilizing effects of tim^UL are not counteracted by the destabilizing effects of PRL-1 mutation during the rising phase of TIM accumulation. Loss of PRL-1 results in substantially reduced and delayed nuclear accumulation of TIM during the first day of DD. These effects are much larger than those simply predicted based on the lengthened period and much larger than effects on PER, suggesting a selective effect on TIM in vivo. Using PRL-1 overexpression and knockdown in clock-less Drosophila S2 cells, it was found that PRL-1 dephosphorylates TIM but not PER. Given that PRL-1 mRNA expression peaks around dusk, it is proposed that PRL-1 accumulation during the early night results in TIM dephosphorylation, stabilization, and nuclear localization (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

Strikingly, period lengthening is evident even after siRNA knockdown of all three highly conserved human orthologs of PRL-1, PTP4a-1, -2, and -3 in human U2OS cells, suggesting a widely conserved role in period determination. Like fly PRL-1, mammalian orthologs of PRL-1 also undergo rhythmic expression in many tissues. PTPs may also function via TIM. Mammalian TIM interacts with CRY1 as well as PER1/2, is involved in CLOCK-BMAL1 repression of CLOCK-BMAL1 activation, and sets period length. Mutation of human TIMELESS also results in familial advanced sleep phase syndrome perhaps via altered light responses. Thus, PTP4 action may similarly function to regulate TIM in mammals (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

The connection between PRL-1 and photosensitive TIM suggested that PRL-1 may function to mediate clock responses to light. PRL-1 mutants exhibit a light-dependent and CRY-independent period phenotype. To examine rhythms in LL, PRL-1 mutant period length was examined in a cry mutant background in which flies exhibit free-running rhythms. These flies retain their long periods in DD. On the other hand, in LL they exhibit period lengths comparable to their PRL-1+ controls. Thus, light can act independently of CRY photoreception to compensate for the PRL-1 mutant period lengthening. It is hypothesized that signaling through the visual system could accomplish this (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

The finding of LL-dependent period phenotypes led to an examination of the role of PRL-1 in mediating behavioral adaptations to seasonal changes in photoperiod. PRL-1 mutants display delayed morning and evening activity phases under short (6:18) photoperiods. In contrast, they have no alteration of evening activity phase under long (18:6) photoperiods. These photoperiods approximate those that would be experienced by wild Drosophila melanogaster at more extreme latitudes. It is hypothesized that PRL-1 defines a molecular pathway through which the clock adjusts behavioral phase in response to different photoperiods (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

The phenomenon of photoperiod-dependent network hierarchy suggests that M and E cells differ in their core clock properties, responses to light, and/or their network connectivity. It is hypothesized that PRL-1 represents such a specialization of M cell clocks that enables the appropriate behavioral adjustments to different photoperiods. PRL-1 exhibits robust PDF neuron specific cycling, and PRL-1 knockdown selectively in PDF neurons substantially lengthens period. The finding of period phenotypes in DD and not LL is also consistent with M cell specific function. The findings of photoperiod-dependent effects in PRL-1 mutants could reflect enhanced coupling between LNv and CRY-negative DN1p in short photoperiods, consistent with prior findings of light intensity-dependent sLNv-DN1p coupling. Under this model, selective PRL-1-dependent changes in the M cell phase are propagated to E cells in a photoperiod-dependent manner as observed for other M cell-specific changes. Of note, other core clock components have been identified with differential functions between M and E cells, including those involved in TIM phosphorylation, suggesting a wider role for specialized core clock components in M and E cells. It will be of interest to determine if M or E cell-specific mechanisms also function to control behavioral adaptations to different photoperiods and, if so, how they work with respect to PRL-1 (Kula-Eversole, 2020).

Sensitivity of the circadian clock to light/dark cycles ensures that biological rhythms maintain optimal phase relationships with the external day. In animals, the circadian clock neuron network (CCNN) driving sleep/activity rhythms receives light input from multiple photoreceptors, but how these photoreceptors modulate CCNN components is not well understood. This study shows that the Hofbauer-Buchner eyelets, located between the retina and the medulla in the fly optic lobes, differentially modulate two classes of ventral lateral neurons (LNvs) within the Drosophila CCNN. The eyelets antagonize Cryptochrome (CRY)- and compound-eye-based photoreception in the large LNvs while synergizing CRY-mediated photoreception in the small LNvs. Furthermore, it was shown that the large LNvs interact with subsets of 'evening cells' to adjust the timing of the evening peak of activity in a day length-dependent manner. This work identifies a peptidergic connection between the large LNvs and a group of evening cells that is critical for the seasonal adjustment of circadian rhythms (Schlichting, 2016).

Circadian clocks create an endogenous sense of time that is used to produce daily rhythms in physiology and behavior. A defining characteristic of a circadian clock is a modest deviation of its endogenous period from the 24.0 h period of daily environmental change. For example, the average human clock has an endogenous period of 24 h and 11 min. Thus, to maintain a consistent phase relationship with the environment, the human clock must be sped up by 11 min every day. A sensitivity of the circadian clock to environmental time cues (zeitgebers) ensures that circadian clocks are adjusted daily to match the period of environmental change. This process, called entrainment, is fundamental to the proper daily timing of behavior and physiology. For most organisms, daily light/dark (LD) cycles are the most salient zeitgeber (Schlichting, 2016).

Although most tissues express molecular circadian clocks in animals, the clock is required in small islands of neural tissue for the presence of sleep/activity rhythms and many other daily rhythms in physiology. Within these islands, a circadian clock neuron network (CCNN) functions as the master circadian clock. Subsets of neurons within the CCNN receive resetting signals from photoreceptors, and physiological connections between these neurons and their clock neuron targets ensure light entrainment of the CCNN as a whole (Schlichting, 2016).

In both mammals and insects, the CCNN receives light input from multiple photoreceptor types. In Drosophila, the CCNN is entrained by photoreceptors in the compound eye, the ocelli, the Hofbauer-Buchner (HB) eyelets, and by subsets of clock neurons that express the blue light photoreceptor Cryptochrome (CRY). Understanding how multiple light input pathways modulate the CCNN to ensure entrainment to the environmental LD cycle is critical for understanding of the circadian system and its dysfunction when exposed to the unnatural light regimens accompanying much of modern life (Schlichting, 2016).

This study investigates the physiological basis and circadian role of a long-suspected circadian light input pathway in Drosophila: the HB eyelets. These simple accessory eyes contain four photoreceptors located at the posterior edges of the compound eyes and project directly to the accessory medullae (AMe), neuropils that support circadian timekeeping in insects. In Drosophila, the AMe contain projections from ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), important components of the CCNN that express the neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor (PDF), an output required for robust circadian rhythms in locomotor activity. The axon terminals of the HB eyelets terminate near PDF-positive LNv projections and analysis of visual system and cry mutants reveals a role for the HB eyelet in the entrainment of locomotor rhythms to LD cycles, but how the eyelets influence the CCNN to support light entrainment is not well understood (Schlichting, 2016).

This study presents evidence that this circadian light input pathway excites the small LNvs (s-LNvs) and acts to phase-dependently advance free-running rhythms in sleep/activity while inhibiting the large LNvs (l-LNvs). This work reveals that input from external photoreceptors differentially affects specific centers within the fly CCNN. Furthermore, it was shown that, under long summer-like days, the l-LNvs act to modulate subsets of so-called evening cells to delay the onset of evening activity. These results reveal a neural network underlying the photoperiodic adjustment of sleep and activity (Schlichting, 2016).

The experiments described in this study lead to two unexpected findings regarding the network properties of circadian entrainment in Drosophila. First, the l-LNvs govern the phase of evening peak of activity through PdfR-dependent effects on evening cells that bypass the s-LNvs. Although previous work has implicated the l-LNvs in the control of evening peak phase, the current results are the first to provide evidence that there is a direct connection between the l-LNvs and evening cells within the AMe and that this connection mediates the photoperiodic adjustment of sleep and activity in the fly. Second, the HB eyelets light input pathways, long implicated in circadian entrainment, have opposing effects on the l-LNvs and s-LNvs, inhibiting the former and exciting the latter. These results reveal not only a differential effect of a light input pathway on specific nodes of the CCNN but also establish that light from extraretinal photoreceptors can have synergistic or antagonistic effects on CRY- and compound eye-mediated light responses, depending on the clock neuron target in question (Schlichting, 2016).

Both the l-LNvs and s-LNvs express the blue light circadian photoreceptor CRY, the expression of which renders neurons directly excitable by light entering the brain through the cuticle. How such CRY-mediated light input interacts with input from external photoreceptors is not well understood, although it is known that each system alone is sufficient for the entrainment of locomotor rhythms. Genetic evidence suggests that the HB eyelets have relatively weak effects on circadian entrainment: flies with functional eyelets that lack compound eyes, ocelli, and CRY entrain relatively poorly to LD cycles relative to flies with functional eyes or CRY. The small phase responses of locomotor rhythms to HB eyelet excitation further supports a relatively weak effect of the eyelet on free-running locomotor rhythms (Schlichting, 2016).

The LNvs are critical nodes in the CCNN and are closely associated with input pathways linking the central brain to external photoreceptors. Work on the LNvs has provided evidence for a division of labor among the l-LNvs and s-LNvs: the l-LNvs are wake-promoting neurons that acutely govern arousal and sleep independently of the s-LNvs, whereas the s-LNvs act as key coordinators of the CCNN to support robust circadian timekeeping. Anatomical and genetic evidence has long supported the notion that the dorsal projections of the s-LNvs represent the key connection between the LNvs and the remaining components of the CCNN. However, a smaller body of work has suggested that the l-LNvs also contribute to the entrainment of sleep/activity rhythms under LD cycles. The Pdf knockdown and PdfR rescue experiments under long day conditions indicate that, as the day grows longer, the l-LNvs play a greater role in the timing of the evening peak. Moreover, the effects of PDF released from the l-LNvs are mediated not by the PDF receptive s-LNvs but rather by the fifth s-LNvs and a subset of the LNds, the NPF and ITP coexpressing LNds in particular (with some influence of the other PDF-receptor positive LNds). These same neurons were recently identified as evening cells that are physiologically responsive to PDF but relatively weakly coupled to LNv clocks under conditions of constant darkness. The results suggest that the l-LNvs differentially modulate the NPF/ITP-positive evening oscillators as a function of day length, producing stronger PDF-dependent delays under long day conditions through increased release of PDF from the l-LNvs, thereby delaying the evening activity peak. Thus, the l-LNvs mediate their effects on the evening peak of activity through their action on the NPF/ITP-positive subset of evening oscillators. The proposed PDF release from the l-LNvs under long days requires their activation via CRY and/or the compound eyes via ACh release from lamina L2 interneurons. It is hypothesized that the inhibitory influence of the HB eyelets ceases under long days allowing the compound eyes and CRY to maximally excite the l-LNvs. Indeed, previous work has established that the compound eyes are especially important for adapting fly evening activity to long days. Furthermore, several studies have suggested that the compound eyes signal to the l-LNvs leading to enhanced PDF release and a slowing-down of the evening oscillators. A recent paper measuring Ca2+ rhythms in the different clock neurons in vivo supports this view (Liang, 2016): Ca2+ rhythms in the l-LNvs peak in the middle of the day, unlike the s-LNvs, which display Ca2+ peaks in the late night/early morning. It is suggested that this phasing is produced by the inhibition of l-LNvs by the eyelets in the morning, followed by the excitation of the l-LNvs by the compound eyes and CRY. Interestingly, the only other clock neuron classes to display Ca2+ increases during the day are the LNds and fifth-sLNv, which phase lag the l-LNvs by ~2.5 h and display peak Ca2+ levels in the late afternoon, a time that coincides with the evening peak of activity (Liang, 2016). It is proposed that the relative coordination of Ca2+ rhythms between the l-LNvs and the LNds/fifth-sLNv is produced by the connection this study has identified between these neurons and the action of the eyelet and visual system on the l-LNvs (Schlichting, 2016).

Recent work has revealed that evening activity is promoted directly by the evening oscillator neurons and that the mid-day siesta is produced by the daily inhibition of evening oscillators by a group of dorsal clock neurons (Guo, 2016). It is proposed that the connections described in this study govern the timing of the evening peak of activity through the PDF-dependent modulation of the molecular clocks within the evening oscillator neurons, although PDF modulation likely results in the excitation of target neurons, which would promote evening activity. The results reveal new and unexpected network properties underlying the entrainment of the circadian clock neuron network to LD cycles. Excitatory effects of light on the LNvs are differentially modulated by the HB eyelets via cholinergic excitation of the s-LNvs and histaminergic inhibition of the l-LNvs. The work further reveals PDF-dependent modulatory connections in the AMe between the l-LNvs and the s-LNvs and, most surprisingly, between the l-LNvs and a small subset of evening oscillators. This work indicates that the latter connection is critical for the adjustment of evening activity phase during long, summer-like days. This network model of entrainment reveals not only how CRY and external photoreceptors interact within specific nodes of the CCNN, but also how photoreception is likely to drive changes in CCNN output in the face of changing day length (Schlichting, 2016).

The light-input factor Quasimodo (Qsm) regulates rhythmic electrical excitability of clock neurons, presumably via an Na+, K+, Cl- cotransporter (NKCC) and the Shaw K+ channel (dKV3.1). Because of light-dependent degradation of the clock protein Timeless (Tim), constant illumination (LL) leads to a breakdown of molecular and behavioral rhythms. Both overexpression (OX) and knockdown (RNAi) of qsm, NKCC, or Shaw led to robust LL rhythmicity. Whole-cell recordings of the large ventral lateral neurons (l-LNv) showed that altering Qsm levels reduced the daily variation in neuronal activity: qsm^OX led to a constitutive less active, night-like state, and qsm^RNAi led to a more active, day-like state. Qsm also affected daily changes in K+ currents and the GABA reversal potential, suggesting a role in modifying membrane currents and GABA responses in a daily fashion, potentially modulating light arousal and input to the clock. When directly challenged with blue light, wild-type l-LNvs responded with increased firing at night and no net response during the day, whereas altering Qsm, NKKC, or Shaw levels abolished these day/night differences. Finally, coexpression of Shaw^OX and NKCC^RNAi in a qsm mutant background restored LL-induced behavioral arrhythmicity and wild-type neuronal activity patterns, suggesting that the three genes operate in the same pathway. It is proposed that Qsm affects both daily and acute light effects in l-LNvs probably acting on Shaw and NKCC (Buhl, 2016).

All organisms are subject to predictable but drastic daily environmental changes caused by the earth's rotation around the sun. It is critical for the fitness and well-being of an individual to anticipate these changes, and this anticipation is done by circadian timekeeping systems (clocks). These regulate changes in behavior, physiology, and metabolism to ensure they occur at certain times during the day, thereby adapting the organism to its environment. The circadian system consists of three elements: the circadian clock to keep time, inputs that allow entrainment, and outputs that influence physiology and behavior. Like a normal clock, circadian clocks run at a steady pace (24 h) and can be reset. In nature this environmental synchronization is done via daily light and temperature cycles, food intake, and social interactions (Buhl, 2016).

In Drosophila the central clock comprises 75 neuron pairs grouped into identifiable clusters that subserve different circadian functions. The molecular basis of the circadian clock is remarkably conserved from Drosophila to mammals. This intracellular molecular clock drives clock neurons to express circadian rhythms in electrical excitability, including variation in membrane potential and spike firing. Clock neurons are depolarized and fire more during the day than at night, and circadian changes in the expression of clock-controlled genes encoding membrane proteins such as ion channels and transporters likely contribute to these rhythms. Such cyclical variations in activity play a critical role in synchronizing different clock neurons and conveying circadian signals to other parts of the nervous system and body. Furthermore, they provide positive feedback to the molecular clock, which can dampen rapidly without such feedback (Buhl, 2016).

Light resets the circadian clock every morning to synchronize the clock to the environment via Timeless (Tim) degradation after activation of the blue-light photoreceptor Cryptochrome (Cry), Quasimodo (Qsm), and potentially also visual photoreceptors. Qsm acts either independently or downstream of Cry and also is able to affect clock protein stability in Qsm-negative neurons by an unknown non-cell-autonomous mechanism (Chen, 2011). Recently Cry has been shown to regulate clock neuron excitability via the redox sensor of the Hyperkinetic voltage-gated potassium (KV)-β subunit (Hk) (Fogle, 2015), and this study asked if Qsm affects the clock neurons in a similar way (Buhl, 2016).

Membrane potential is important for control of circadian behavior, and manipulation of Shaw and the Narrow Abdomen (NA) channels, both of which are expressed and function within clock neurons influence neuronal electrical activity, the circadian clock, and clock-controlled behavior in both flies and mice. The firing rate is a key component in mammalian circadian rhythmicity and can be regulated by regional and circadian expression of the sodium potassium chloride cotransporter NKCC, which switches the effects of GABA from inhibitory to excitatory across the day (Buhl, 2016).

This study shows that down-regulation or overexpression of the three membrane proteins encoded by the genes qsm, Shaw, and NKCC leads to rhythmicity in constant illumination (LL) and that these genes interact. All three genes are expressed in the well-characterized pigment-dispersing factor (Pdf)- and Cry-positive large ventral lateral neurons (l-LNv), which are important for arousal and light input to the clock. Whole-cell recordings of l-LNvs were used to characterize their physiological properties and acute light effects across the day, and Qsm was found to help set the circadian state of clock neurons and modify their response to light, possibly by acting via Shaw and NKCC (Buhl, 2016).

Light is the dominant circadian zeitgeber that resets the molecular clock. This study determined how light affects membrane excitability via the membrane proteins Qsm, Shaw, and NKCC. Previously it was shown that Qsm contributes to circadian clock light input with down-regulation in all clock neurons (tim-gal4) resulting in robust rhythmic behavior in LL (Chen, 2011). This study shows that overexpression (qsm^OX) also results in robust LL rhythmicity, but with predominantly ~13-h periods, suggesting a more robust morning oscillator that is normally weakened in DD conditions. Manipulating the expression levels of both the potassium channel Shaw and the ion cotransporter NKCC also resulted in LL rhythmicity, whereas several visual system mutants behaved like wild-type flies and became arrhythmic. These experiments show that the membrane proteins encoded by qsm, Shaw, and NKCC control rhythmic behavior in LL. Furthermore, the rescue of wild-type behavior and neurophysiological properties by reciprocal changes of Qsm and Shaw and by the simultaneous reduction of Qsm and NKCC suggests that Qsm interacts genetically and perhaps directly with Shaw and NKCC (Buhl, 2016).

Clock neurons are more depolarized and fire more during the daytime, and circadian changes in the expression of clock-controlled genes such as ion channels and transporters are likely to play a part. Contributing to this rhythm is a sodium leak current mediated by NA that recently has been shown to depolarize Drosophila clock neurons. This study shows that Shaw, NKCC, and Qsm also contribute to daily electrical activity rhythms: overexpression and RNAi knock-down of qsm and Shaw compared with NKCC resulted in opposing phenotypes. Interestingly, qsm^OX or Shaw^OX and NKCC^RNAi promote the less active nighttime state, whereas qsm^RNAi, Shaw^RNAi, and NKCC^OX push the neurons into the more depolarized daytime state, eliminating the acute day/night differences in all cases. Previous work has shown that Shaw regulates circadian behavior and that, in agreement with the current findings, Shaw regulates membrane potential and firing in Drosophila motoneurons. NKCC activity is electrically neutral but increases the intracellular Cl^- concentration so that the GABA_A receptor opens in response to GABA but, as a consequence, Cl^- presumably exits the cell down its electrochemical gradient, thereby depolarizing the membrane potential so that GABA effectively becomes an excitatory neurotransmitter. The current data show that in Drosophila a similar mechanism occurs, which is consistent with potential NKCC enrichment in l-LNv at dawn. The mechanism setting the neuronal state to either daytime or nighttime via Qsm, Shaw, and NKCC is likely to be predominantly cell-autonomous, because all components have been shown to act or to be expressed in the l-LNv. Although in an earlier study using qsm-gal4 lines qsm expression was not detected in the l-LNv, these lines may not report expression faithfully in all qsm cells. Now, the finding that qsm RNA is enriched in the l-LNv, combined with the strong effects of two qsm-RNAi lines on l-LNv electrical properties presented in this study, indicates that qsm is endogenously expressed in these neurons (Buhl, 2016).

Physiological studies are limited to the Pdf-expressing l-LNv neurons. These neurons are unlikely candidates for driving behavioral rhythms in LL, and previous work has shown that qsm knockdown in Pdf neurons (s-LNv and l-LNv) does not result in robust LL rhythmicity. Therefore the effects of light on the electrical properties of l-LNv reported here do not necessarily explain the LL rhythmicity observed after manipulating qsm, Shaw, and NKCC in all clock neurons. However, the electrophysiological results using tim-gal4 show that Qsm, Shaw, and NKCC could fulfill similar functions in other clock neurons, including those crucial for LL rhythmicity (e.g., LNd and DN₁). Additionally, or alternatively, the manipulated l-LNv could generate signals interfering with normal network function, resulting in the observed rhythmic LL behavior (Buhl, 2016).

Although qsm is a clock-controlled gene, the acute blue-light effects that were observed are too fast to be mediated by transcriptional changes. Therefore, a more direct membrane-localized mechanism is favored in which rapid light-dependent posttranslational changes of Qsm alter the activity of Shaw and NKCC. Because (i) Cry is required for light-dependent Tim degradation in l-LNv, (ii) changing the Qsm level has no effect on Cry levels, and (iii) qsm^OX triggers Tim degradation in the absence of Cry, the most likely explanation for the results reported in this study is that, in addition to activating Hk, Cry acts upstream of Qsm, which in turn regulates the activity of Shaw and NKCC. It is assumed that Qsm is activated by light because a light pulse at night rapidly increases protein levels. Qsm is an extracellular zona-pellucida (ZP) membrane-anchored protein, and it is hypothesized that after light exposure the extracellular ZP domain is cleaved at a conserved furin protease cleavage site, a form of posttranslational processing typical for ZP-domain proteins. It is also possible that Qsm signals to Shaw and NKCC in both membrane-bound and cleaved forms. For example, at night membrane-bound Qsm could block NKCC, whereas light-induced cleavage could release this block, and the freed extracellular part could inactivate Shaw. This mechanism is reminiscent to the mechanism by which the GPI-anchored extracellular protein Sleepless increases Shaker (K_V1 channel) activity for regulating Drosophila sleep (Buhl, 2016).

How Qsm-induced changes in clock neuron activity influence the molecular clock remains an open question. Recent work shows that, in addition to the canonical degradation via Cry and Jetlag, Tim is also degraded via a Cul-3 and neuronal activity-dependent pathway in DD that has been implicated in mediating phase delays in the circadian clock. In contrast to this activity-dependent Cul-3 pathway, the light responses in the current study depend on Cry. Therefore a model is favored in which the combined functions of Qsm, Shaw, and NKCC contribute to the canonical Cry- and Jetlag-dependent Tim-degradation pathway (Buhl, 2016).

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that Qsm affects both daily and acute light responses of l-LNvs, and therefore (Qsm) presumably contributes to light-input to the Drosophila circadian clock. Qsm possibly signals downstream of Cry and acts on Shaw and NKCC to change clock neuronal activity in response to light (Buhl, 2016).

Light at night disrupts the circadian clock and causes serious health problems in the modern world. This study shows that newly developed four-package light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can provide harmless lighting at night. To quantify the effects of light on the circadian clock, the concept of circadian illuminance (CIL) was employed. CIL represents the amount of light weighted toward the wavelengths to which the circadian clock is most sensitive, whereas visual illuminance (VIL) represents the total amount of visible light. Exposure to 12 h:12 h cycles of white LED light with high and low CIL values but a constant VIL value (conditions hereafter referred to as CH/CL) can entrain behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in flies. Moreover, flies re-entrain to phase shift in the CH/CL cycle. Core-clock proteins are required for the rhythmic behaviors seen with this LED lighting scheme. Taken together, this study provides a guide for designing healthful white LED lights for use at night, and proposes the use of the CIL value for estimating the harmful effects of any light source on organismal health (Cho, 2016).

In many animals the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity is controlled by an endogenous circadian clock. Using custom made housing and video tracking software in order to obtain high spatial and temporal resolution, wthe statistical properties of the locomotor activity of wild type and two clock mutants of Drosophila melanogaster were studied. This study showed that the distributions of activity and quiescence bouts for the clock mutants in light-dark conditions (LD) are very different from the distributions obtained when there are no external cues from the environment (DD). In the wild type these distributions are very similar, showing that the clock controls this aspect of behavior in both regimes (LD and DD). Furthermore, the distributions are very similar to those reported for Wistar rats. For the timing of events important differences were observed, quantified by how the event rate distributions scale for increasing time windows. For the wild type these distributions can be rescaled by the same function in DD as in LD. Interestingly, the same function has been shown to rescale the rate distributions in Wistar rats. On the other hand, for the clock mutants it is not possible to rescale the rate distributions, which might indicate that the extent of circadian control depends on the statistical properties of activity and quiescence (Cascallares, 2018).

Behavioral responsiveness to external stimulation is shaped by context. This study examined how sensory information can be contextualized, by examining light-evoked locomotor responsiveness of Drosophila relative to time of day. Light elicits an acute increase in locomotion (startle) that is modulated in a time-of-day-dependent manner: startle is potentiated during the nighttime, when light is unexpected, but is suppressed during the daytime. The internal daytime-nighttime context is generated by two interconnected and functionally opposing populations of circadian neurons-LNvs generating the daytime state and DN1 as generating the nighttime state. Switching between the two states requires daily remodeling of LNv and DN1a axons such that the maximum presynaptic area in one population coincides with the minimum in the other. It is proposed that a dynamic model of environmental light resides in the shifting connectivities of the LNv-DN1a circuit, which helps animals evaluate ongoing conditions and choose a behavioral response (Song, 2021).

Alterations of neuronal activity, rather than morphology, are usually considered the cause of cognitive flexibility. The mechanism that this study describes relies on physical cellular restructuring. What are the advantages of a system like this? While near-instantaneous electrical activity is the basic language of neurons, many behaviors and internal states occur on much longer time scales. Morphological remodeling is a slow process, aligning with functions that change over the course of hours. In support of this view, changes in neuronal morphology have been found to underlie appetite, sexual experience, and foraging history. Although seemingly wasteful, physical remodeling may be particularly useful for encoding relatively stable states, due to presumably high energetic barrier (Song, 2021).

Understanding the mechanisms of circuit state transitions may help clarify the etiology of mood disorders like depression or bipolar disorder. These disorders are characterized by excessive or insufficient transitions between extreme states and, as such, may reflect a collapse of organizational principles that permit flexible circuit function. It is generally unknown how behavioral states can be stable across long time scales while also being able to undergo flexible transitions. Motifs from the LNv-DN1a circuit illustrate one solution to this apparent contradiction. LNvs and DN1as are arranged in a mutually inhibitory system, which may help ensure stability, consistency, and accuracy over long time scales. In the absence of external influences, reciprocal inhibition can stabilize a winner-take-all steady state. Structural plasticity is a potential way to overcome rigidity by providing a molecular mechanism to surmount electrical inhibition (Song, 2021).

In this model, the molecular oscillations of the circadian clock direct oscillations in cell shape through molecular effectors such as Rho1, ultimately leading to changes in behavior. Rho1 overexpression experiments suggest that neuronal morphology causally influences behavior. However, it cannot be ruled out that high levels of Rho1 cause off-target effects that have not been accounted for. Previous work used conditional methods to determine that Rho1 regulates daily LNv remodeling rhythms, but this study used constitutive Rho1 overexpression (to avoid using high temperatures required for the conditional experiment), and thus cannot exclude the possibility of developmental confounds (Song, 2021).

It is possible, if not likely, that other circadian neuronal populations also contribute to generating predictions about light. In this study, the optogenetic silencing phenotypes of LNvs and DN1as together recapitulate the phenotype produced by network-wide loss of clock function. However, the native circuit signal may be built by the cooperative action of multiple subpopulations with overlapping tuning. Hints of subpopulation cooperativity are apparent in the data: there was a stronger phenotype when PDF was knocked down in both small and large LNvs, compared to small LNvs alone. Glycine was recently found to be a fast, inhibitory neurotransmitter that is co-released from s-LNvs in addition to the neuropeptide PDF. While a necessary and sufficient role for the neuropeptide PDF in the behavioral assay, it cannot be ruled out that glycine instead mediates the fast inhibition seen during ex vivo calcium imaging. Furthermore, this study focused on two time points, but other populations may be more influential during other times of day. In support of this theory, it was recently found that lateral dorsal neurons also show axon remodeling rhythms centered around the evening, a time point that this study did not address. Because the other clock neuron subpopulations are active at different times, and recurrent inhibition is prevalent in the fly circadian network, it is likely that LNv-DN1a interactions are necessary, but not sufficient, for circadian network operations in the context described in this study (Song, 2021).

What this study calls 'startle' is commonly referred to as 'masking' because acute reactivity to lights-on and lights-off can distort measurements of circadian rhythmicity. For this reason, most assays of circadian function are done in unchanging environmental conditions (e.g., constant darkness). This study showed that startle to lights-on can also be an informative indicator of internal timekeeping. The conditional experiments using optogenetics suggest that clock neuron activity contextualizes light on an ongoing basis. However, because the experimental animals were exposed to daytime light during the habituation period, the possibility that LNv and DN1a activity is also required during entrainment cannot be excluded. Another consideration is that light resets the molecular clock. One hour of nighttime light can advance or delay circadian rhythms, which is apparent in the timing of rest and activity on subsequent days. It is unknown if this phase-shifting phenomenon affects the acute reactivity observed in this study (Song, 2021).

Circadian clocks have evolved in the context of consistent light schedules, and this predictability has been relatively unchallenged across evolutionary history. Ubiquitous artificial lighting introduces new strains on the circadian system. Misalignment between internal rhythms and the external world can have profound consequences on health and cognition. The feeling of jetlag demonstrates the acute physical and mental burden of when internal clocks are in conflict with the external world. Chronic misalignment, such as in the case of night-shift workers, causes increased rates of cancer. The use of electronic devices before bedtime has been linked to delays in sleep onset and reductions in sleep quality. The system this study described in Drosophila presents a model to understand the acute consequences of circadian misalignment (Song, 2021).

A predictive nervous system enables continual evaluation of reality relative to context. One result of this is that a fixed stimulus can evoke a multitude of behaviors depending on an animal's history, needs, and external context. This study shows how the Drosophila circadian system creates a dynamic internal reference for what environmental conditions should be. Many of the motifs observed are conserved: Mammalian circadian clock neuron subpopulations are also active at different times and are linked by recurrent inhibition, suggesting that mammalian temporal estimation may operate using similar principles. The paradigm that this study developed offers opportunities to understand the interface between internal models and sensory evidence. Circadian neurons are sensitive to environmental inputs: can they autonomously compute prediction error? They communicate with downstream dopaminergic populations: are those analogous to mammalian midbrain dopaminergic neurons whose activities reflect prediction error? It is proposed that flies assign valence to experienced environmental conditions, a computation that uses an internal model generated through circuit remodeling (Song, 2021).

Neuropeptides play pivotal roles in modulating circadian rhythms. Pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) is critical to the circadian rhythms in Drosophila locomotor activity. This study demonstrates that diuretic hormone 31 (DH31) complements PDF function in regulating free-running rhythmicity using male flies. It was determined that Dh31 loss-of-function mutants (Dh31^#51) showed normal rhythmicity, whereas Dh31(^#51);Pdf⁰¹ double mutants exhibited a severe arrhythmic phenotype compared to Pdf-null mutants (Pdf⁰¹). The expression of tethered-PDF or tethered-DH31 in clock cells, posterior dorsal neurons 1 (DN1ps), overcomes the severe arrhythmicity of Dh31(^#51);Pdf⁰¹double mutants, suggesting that DH31 and PDF may act on DN1ps to regulate free-running rhythmicity in a hierarchical manner. Unexpectedly, the molecular oscillations in Dh31(^#51);Pdf⁰¹ mutants were similar to those in Pdf⁰¹ mutants in DN1ps, indicating that DH31 does not contribute to molecular oscillations. Furthermore, a reduction in Dh31 receptor (Dh31r) expression resulted in normal locomotor activity and did not enhance the arrhythmic phenotype caused by the Pdf receptor (Pdfr) mutation, suggesting that PDFR, but not DH31R, in DN1ps mainly regulates free-running rhythmicity. Taken together, this study identifies a novel role of DH31, in which DH31 and PDF hierarchically regulate free-running rhythmicity through DN1ps (Goda, 2019).

This study has demonstrated a novel function of DH31 in regulating Drosophila locomotor activity rhythms. Dh31^#51 mutants maintained a robust free-running rhythm, whereas Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ double-mutant flies exhibited a severe disruption of their free-running rhythm compared to Pdf⁰¹ mutants. These findings suggest that Dh31^#51 mutants maintain a robust free-running rhythm because the primary factor, PDF, can sustain a strong rhythm. ~40% of Pdf⁰¹ single-mutant flies exhibited a preserved rhythmic state, which is because DH31 can partially support free-running rhythmicity. Thus, the severe disruptions of free-running rhythm in Pdf⁰¹ and Dh31^#51 double-mutant flies is likely caused by the loss of both pathways (Goda, 2019).

PDF is secreted from the main circadian neurons, LNvs, and acts on other clock cells through PDFR to synchronize and maintain robust molecular rhythms. PDF expression from LNvs in Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ mutants restored rhythmicity, in contrast to tethered-PDF (t-PDF) expression in LNvs, indicating that an autoreceptor of PDF signals in LNvs is not sufficient to maintain rhythmicity. Instead, t-PDF expression in DN1ps restored rhythmicity, suggesting that PDF signaling in DN1ps is sufficient to maintain robust free-running rhythmicity. Recently, the responsiveness to PDF was shown to be strongly altered for 24 h via RalA GTPase in sLNvs28. Therefore, it is expected that the continuous activation of PDFR by t-PDF generates rhythmic downstream signaling in PDFR-expressing neurons (Goda, 2019).

Molecular oscillations in DN1s were strongly dampened in Pdf⁰¹ mutants compared with WT flies. These data are consistent with previous studies in which the molecular oscillations of PER in Pdf⁰¹ mutants held under DD conditions were dampened in DN1s10 and the genetic manipulation of the circadian clocks in PDF-positive cells altered the molecular rhythms in DN1ps. Furthermore, Pdfr expression in DN1ps has been reported to prevent the arrhythmic phenotype in Pdfr⁵³⁰⁴ mutants. These findings support the idea that PDF is secreted from LNvs and acts on DN1ps to regulate free-running rhythmicity (Goda, 2019).

Furthermore, it was shown that t-DH31 expression in DN1ps rescued the Pdf⁰¹ and Dh31^#51 double-mutant phenotypes, which suggests that DH31 acts on DN1ps to regulate rhythmicity. Although it has been suggested that DH31 release might increase at dawn and that DH31-mRNA expression levels oscillate for 24 h, how t-DH31 expression causes rhythmic behavioral output remains unclear. Because DH31 can modestly activate PDFR in vitro, it cannot be excluded that t-DH31 overexpression might simply activate PDFR in DN1ps instead of the intrinsic PDF signals, thereby restoring locomotor activity rhythms in the flies. However, the rhythmicity of Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ mutants overexpressing t-DH31 in tim-Gal4-expressing neurons or R18H11-Gal4-expressing DN1ps only reached levels similar to that of the Pdf⁰¹ single-mutant flies. Therefore, DH31 likely acts on DN1ps separately from the PDF pathway (Goda, 2019).

Although it has been shown that DH31 is expressed in a subset of DN1ps, DH31 expression using R18H11-Gal4 did not rescue the Pdf⁰¹ and Dh31^#51 double-mutant phenotypes, suggesting that DH31 expression in R18H11-Gal4-expressing neurons is insufficient to maintain rhythmicity. Instead, DH31 is expressed in DN1as and DH31 expression in tim-Gal4-expressing neurons rescued the phenotype, which suggests that DH31 expression in clock neurons maintains rhythmicity. That said, given that DH31 is expressed in nonclock neurons and that tim-Gal4 is expressed in nonclock cells, it cannot be excluded that DH31 expression in nonclock neurons might play a role in rescuing the severe phenotype of Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ mutants. Alternatively, although DH31 expression in LNvs was not detectable via anti-DH31 antibody staining, a recent RNA-seq analysis detected Dh31 gene expression in both LNvs and DN1s. Therefore, DH31 expression from LNvs may potentially act on DN1s to support locomotor activity rhythms (Goda, 2019).

In summary, it is proposed that PDF and DH31 regulate free-running rhythms in a hierarchical fashion in DN1ps. As t-DH31 or t-PDF expression in DN1ps resulted in a similar level of rhythmicity as that observed in flies expressing t-DH31 or t-PDF, respectively, in tim-Gal4-expressing neurons, DN1ps are at least one of the important clock cells that regulate free-running rhythmicity (Goda, 2019).

Given that Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ mutants exhibited severe arrhythmicity in free-running rhythm, it is speculated that the severe arrhythmic phenotype might be a result of abnormal molecular oscillations. However, the molecular oscillations of Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ mutants were similar to those of Pdf⁰¹ mutants. Therefore, the molecular mechanisms by which DH31 regulates free-running rhythms still remain unclear. Importantly, the peak of VRI expression in LNds in Dh31^#51 was at ZT 19, which was delayed compared with those of WT flies and the other mutants. The data suggested that DH31 is involved in the regulation of molecular oscillations in LNds. Because LNds are the evening pacemaker, the delayed VRI oscillations in LNds might be associated with the longer period of free-running rhythm in Dh31^#51 (Goda, 2019).

Recently, the intracellular calcium rhythms in each clock cell were reported to be nonsynchronous and associated with morning and evening peaks in locomotor activity. DH31 signaling may possibly contribute to the downstream output that controls molecular rhythms in pacemaker processes, such as intracellular calcium rhythms. Given that PDF from sLNvs regulates strong molecular rhythms in DN1ps and generates robust free-running rhythms under constant conditions, DH31 may help maintain vigorous output signals downstream of the molecular clocks in DN1ps (Goda, 2019).

Recently work has shown that both Dh31r^1/Df mutants and flies undergoing Dh31r knockdown in their neurons showed normal rhythmicity in the locomotor activity rhythm25. In contrast to Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ double mutants, Pdfr5304;Dh31r^1/Df double mutants did not enhance the arrhythmicity observed in Pdfr single mutants, which suggests that Dh31r does not complement PDFR function; thus, Dh31r does not function as a receptor for DH31 in this context. Given that Dh31r^1/Df flies showed a strong abnormality in the TPR phenotype25, it is more likely that Dh31r does not play an important role in locomotor activity rhythms. However, Dh31r^1/Df4 mutants are not null25, and it cannot be excluded that a small amount of residual Dh31r might drive robust locomotor activity rhythms with the PDF pathway (Goda, 2019).

Which receptors might function with DH31 to regulate free-running rhythmicity? Given that DH31 can activate PDFR in vitro, bath applications of DH31 can activate LNvs via PDFR19 and DH31 can function as a ligand of PDFR in TPR at the onset of night, PDFR may function as a receptors for both DH31 and PDF in the regulation of free-running rhythmicity. However, because the arrhythmicity of Pdfr5304 mutants was not as severe as that of Dh31^#51;Pdf⁰¹ mutants, PDFR does not appear to act as a receptor for DH31 in this context (Goda, 2019).

Both Dh31r and PDFR are class II G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), which also include Hector and Diuretic hormone 44 receptors 1 and 2 (DH44R1 and DH44R2, respectively). Interestingly, the DH44R1 and DH44R2 ligand DH44 has been implicated in circadian output circuits. Therefore, although there is no evidence from in vitro or in vivo experiments, these receptors might nevertheless function as receptors for DH31 to regulate free-running rhythmicity (Goda, 2019).

Orchestration of neuropeptides regulates locomotor activity rhythms in species ranging from flies to mammals The orchestration of neuropeptides is critical for regulating circadian clock functions in species that range from flies to mammals. In mammals, several neuropeptides, including vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), arginine vasopressin (AVP) and neuromedin S (NMS), are expressed in the SCN, which is the center for circadian clock control. The hierarchy of neuropeptide signaling contributes to circadian function in the SCN. Several recent studies in Drosophila have identified the neuropeptides, including ion transport peptide (ITP), neuropeptide F (NPF), allatostatin A, short neuropeptide F, leucokinin and DH44, that regulate locomotor activity and sleep. However, given that DH31 complements the function of PDF in regulating free-running rhythmicity in the same clock cells, DH31 not only serves as one of the neuropeptides that regulates circadian rhythms but also might selectively influence PDF function in the regulation of free-running rhythms. Thus, these findings shed new light on the next steps required to improve understanding of the core neuropeptide regulatory mechanisms involved in the circadian rhythm (Goda, 2019).

Circadian clocks regulate much of behavior and physiology, but the mechanisms by which they do so remain poorly understood. While cyclic gene expression is thought to underlie metabolic rhythms, little is known about cycles in cellular physiology. This study found that Drosophila insulin-producing cells (IPCs), which are located in the pars intercerebralis and lack an autonomous circadian clock, are functionally connected to the central circadian clock circuit via DN1 neurons. Insulin mediates circadian output by regulating the rhythmic expression of a metabolic gene (sxe2) in the fat body. Patch clamp electrophysiology reveals that IPCs display circadian clock-regulated daily rhythms in firing event frequency and bursting proportion under light:dark conditions. The activity of IPCs and the rhythmic expression of sxe2 are additionally regulated by feeding, as demonstrated by night feeding-induced changes in IPC firing characteristics and sxe2 levels in the fat body. These findings indicate circuit-level regulation of metabolism by clock cells in Drosophila and support a role for the pars intercerebralis in integrating circadian control of behavior and physiology (Barber, 2016).

Many behaviors exhibit ~24-h oscillations under control of an endogenous circadian timing system.Most circadian research in Drosophila has focused on the generation of locomotor activity rhythms, but a fundamental question is how the circadian clock orchestrates multiple distinct behavioral outputs. This study has investigated the cells and circuits mediating circadian control of feeding behavior. This study shows that the presence of feeding rhythms requires molecular clock function in the ventrolateral clock neurons of the central brain. This study further demonstrate that the speed of molecular clock oscillations in these neurons dictates the free-running period length of feeding rhythms. In contrast to the effects observed with central clock cell manipulations, This study shows that genetic abrogation of the molecular clock in the fat body, a peripheral metabolic tissue, is without effect on feeding behavior. Under these conditions, the period of feeding rhythms tracks with molecular oscillations in central brain clock cells, consistent with a primary role of the brain clock in dictating the timing of feeding behavior. Finally, despite a lack of effect of fat body selective manipulations, this study found that flies with simultaneous disruption of molecular clocks in multiple peripheral tissues (but with intact central clocks) exhibit decreased feeding rhythm strength and reduced overall food intake. This study concluded that both central and peripheral clocks contribute to the regulation of feeding rhythms, with a particularly dominant, pacemaker role for specific populations of central brain clock cells (Fulgham, 2021).

The link between the biological clock and reproduction is evident in most metazoans. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a key model organism in the field of chronobiology because of its well-defined networks of molecular clock genes and pacemaker neurons in the brain, shows a pronounced diurnal rhythmicity in oogenesis. Still, it is unclear how the circadian clock generates this reproductive rhythm. A subset of the group of neurons designated "posterior dorsal neuron 1" (DN1p), which are among the ~150 pacemaker neurons in the fly brain, produces the neuropeptide allatostatin C (AstC-DN1p). This study reports that six pairs of AstC-DN1p neurons send inhibitory inputs to the brain insulin-producing cells, which express two AstC receptors, star1 and AICR2. Consistent with the roles of insulin/insulin-like signaling in oogenesis, activation of AstC-DN1p suppresses oogenesis through the insulin-producing cells. This study shows evidence that AstC-DN1p activity plays a role in generating an oogenesis rhythm by regulating juvenile hormone and vitellogenesis indirectly via insulin/insulin-like signaling. AstC is orthologous to the vertebrate neuropeptide somatostatin (SST). Like AstC, SST inhibits gonadotrophin secretion indirectly through gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the hypothalamus. The functional and structural conservation linking the AstC and SST systems suggest an ancient origin for the neural substrates that generate reproductive rhythms (Zhang, 2021).

Six pairs of DN1p neurons were discovered that are part of the circadian pacemaker neuron network in the brain and make functional inhibitory connections to the brain IPCs. The IPCs are endocrine sensors that link the organism's nutritional status with anabolic processes, such as those associated with growth in developmental stages and with reproduction in adults. In juvenile stages, activation of insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling (IIS) through the InR results in larger flies, whereas inhibition of this pathway produces smaller flies. Consistent with this, it was also found that forced activation of the AstC-DN1p (i.e., CNMa-Gal4/UAS-NaChBac) during development resulted in 12% smaller adults, confirming their role as a negative regulator of the IPCs. In adults, the IPCs are associated with many physiological and behavioral processes, such as feeding, glycaemic homeostasis, sleep, lifespan, and stress resistance. As such, the IPCs receive a variety of modulatory inputs from both central and peripheral sources, such as sNPF, corazonin, tachykinins, limostatin, allatostatin A, adipokinetic hormone, GABA, serotonin, and octopamine. Regarding reproduction, IIS directed by the IPCs stimulates GSC proliferation and vitellogenesis. The results also indicate that AstC from AstC-DN1p suppresses the secretory activity of the IPCs and juvenile hormone (JH)-dependent oocyte development (i.e., vitellogenesis). Indeed, it was found that the JH mimic methoprene can rescue the suppression of oogenesis induced by AstC-DN1p activation. From these results it is concluded that IPCs are inhibited by AstC released by AstC-DN1p. A similar link between IIS and the circadian clock has also been reported in mammals, but the mechanism remains unclear (Zhang, 2021).

Although the genetic evidence supporting the inhibitory action of AstC-DN1p on IPCs is compelling, it is also puzzling because a previous study found forced activation of 8 to 10 pairs of DN1p neurons (i.e., Clk4.1-LexA+ neurons) induced Ca2+ transients in IPCs. This study also found that, under LD 12:12 conditions, the IPCs showed electrical activity early in the morning when DN1p neurons are also active. The same study, however, reported that, under DD conditions, the IPCs showed no bursting activity in the morning (i.e., CT0 to -4). Instead, they showed bursting activity in the late afternoon (i.e., CT8 to -12) when DN1 activity falls. Furthermore, DN1p activation evokes varying levels of Ca2+ transients from individual IPCs, some of which produce no detectable Ca2+ transient. Thus, like mammalian pancreatic β-cells, the IPCs in Drosophila seem to comprise a heterogeneous cell population. It is noted that individual IPCs show highly variable AstC-R1 expression, which would also lead to individual IPCs showing variable responses to AstC (Zhang, 2021).

In D. melanogaster, the LD cycle generates an egg-laying rhythm by influencing oogenesis and oviposition. Oviposition depends on light cues, whereas oogenesis cycles with the circadian rhythm that itself continues to run in DD conditions. In live-brain Ca2+ imaging experiments, DN1 neurons show a circadian Ca2+ activity rhythm that peaks around CT19 and reaches its lowest point between CT6 and CT8. This DN1 activity rhythm correlates well with the rhythm of vitellogenesis initiation observed in this study. In this model, the lowest point in DN1 Ca2+ activity between CT6 and CT8 leads to a significant attenuation of AstC secretion. This leads to a derepression of IPC activity, which eventually induces JH biosynthesis and vitellogenesis initiation. The 6-h delay required for previtellogenic stage 7 follicles to develop into vitellogenic stage 8 follicles would result in a peak in the number of stage 8 follicles between CT12 and CT14. Notably, the ovaries of the AstC-deficient mutant showed similar numbers of stage 8 oocytes at all examined circadian time points, indicating that any other JH- or vitellogenesis-regulating factors play only minor roles in producing the circadian vitellogenesis rhythm (Zhang, 2021).

Like the IPCs, the DN1p cluster is also heterogeneous. A subset of the DN1p neurons is most active at dawn and promotes wakefulness. Another subset of the DN1p cluster (also known as, spl-gDN1) promotes sleep. The DN1p cluster comprises two morphologically distinct subpopulations, a-DN1p and vc-DN1p. The a-DN1p subcluster promotes wakefulness by inhibiting sleep promoting neurons, whereas the vc-DN1p subcluster resembles the sleep-promoting spl-gDN1. These results indicate AstC-DN1p are a-DN1p neurons that project to the anterior optic tubercle (AOTU. Although the possibility cannot be ruled out that AstC-DN1p is also heterogeneous and includes some vc-DN1p neurons, the wake-promoting role of a-DN1p aligns well with the circadian vitellogenesis rhythm that requires the secretory activity of AstC-DN1p to be lowest in the afternoon and highest at dawn. Furthermore, AstC-DN1p neurons express Dh31. Dh31-expressing DN1 clock neurons are intrinsically wake-promoting and Dh31-DN1p activity in the late night or early morning suppresses sleep. Again, this is consistent with the observation that AstC-DN1p are also wake-promoting a-DN1p. It is speculated Dh31 plays a limited role in oogenesis regulation, because unlike AstC, RNAi-mediated knockdown of Dh31 had a negligible impact on female fecundity (Zhang, 2021).

Besides AstC-DN1p, the female brain has many additional AstC neurons. However, it seems unlikely that other AstC neurons contribute to the circadian vitellogenesis rhythm. This is because restoring AstC expression specifically in AstC-DN1p almost completely restored the vitellogenesis rhythm in AstC-deficient mutants. It is feasible, however, that other AstC neurons contribute to different aspects of female reproduction. Indeed, a sizable difference was noted in the final oogenesis outcome between AstC-Gal4 neuron activation and brain-specific AstC-Gal4 neuron activation. This suggests AstC cells outside of the brain also regulate oogenesis probably in other physiological contexts, such as the postmating responses (Zhang, 2021).

AstC receptors are orthologous to mammalian SST receptors (sstr1-5). SST is a brain neuropeptide that was originally identified as an inhibitor of growth hormone (GH) secretion in the anterior pituitary. Thus, the observation that AstC inhibits IIS from IPCs, a major endocrine signal that promotes growth in Drosophila, suggests remarkable structural and functional conservation between the invertebrate AstC and vertebrate SST systems. In addition, SST inhibits the hypothalamic neuropeptide GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary's production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH stimulates clutches of immature follicles to initiate follicular development, while LH stimulates ovulation. Thus, both AstC and SST regulate the secretion of gonadotropins (JH in insects, FSH and LH in mammals) indirectly through the IPCs in insects and through the hypothalamic GnRH neurons in mammals. This functional conservation between AstC and SST is also evident in the immune system. AstC inhibits the innate immune system in insects, while SST inhibits inflammation in mammals (Zhang, 2021).

In many seasonal breeders, the changing photoperiod as the seasons progress acts as an environmental cue for the biological clock system, which would then direct any necessary physiological changes. During the winter, Drosophila females enter a form of reproductive dormancy characterized by a pronounced suppression of vitellogenesis. A winter-like condition (i.e., short-day length, low temperature, and food shortage) down-regulates neural activity in the IPCs. But the IPCs are not equipped with a cell-autonomous clock, so they must receive seasonal information from the brain clock neuron network. Indeed, two clock related neuropeptides~pigment dispersing factor and short neuropeptide F~from circadian morning pacemaker or M-cells have been implicated in regulating reproductive dormancy. Intriguingly, AstC-DN1p neurons are the DN1p subset that receives pigment dispersing factor signals from these M-cells. Furthermore, DN1p can process light and temperature information for the circadian regulation of behavior. Finally, the finding that AstC-DN1p generates the circadian vitellogenesis rhythm via the IPCs makes AstC-DN1p neurons the prime candidates for integrating the seasonal cues that control the entrance, maintenance, or exit from reproductive dormancy. Considering the functional and structural conservation between the AstC and SST systems, the SST system may also link the brain clock, GnRH, and/or its downstream reproductive pathways in controlling seasonal reproductive patterns in vertebrates (Zhang, 2021).

Twenty-four hour rhythms in behavior are organized by a network of circadian pacemaker neurons. Rhythmic activity in this network is generated by intrinsic rhythms in clock neuron physiology and communication between clock neurons. However, it is poorly understood how the activity of a small number of pacemaker neurons is translated into rhythmic behavior of the whole animal. To understand this, a screen was carried out for signals that could identify circadian output circuits in Drosophila melanogaster. Leucokinin neuropeptide (LK) and its receptor (LK-R) were found to be required for normal behavioral rhythms. This LK/LK-R circuit connects pacemaker neurons to brain areas that regulate locomotor activity and sleep. These experiments revealed that pacemaker neurons impose rhythmic activity and excitability on LK- and LK-R-expressing neurons. Pacemaker neuron-dependent activity rhythms were also found in a second circadian output pathway controlled by DH44 neuropeptide-expressing neurons. It is concluded that rhythmic clock neuron activity propagates to multiple downstream circuits to orchestrate behavioral rhythms (Cavey, 2016).

The mammalian circadian clock influences most aspects of physiology and behavior through the transcriptional control of a wide variety of genes, mostly in a tissue-specific manner. About 20 clock-controlled genes (CCGs) oscillate in virtually all mammalian tissues and are generally considered as core clock components. One of them is Ubiquitin-Specific Protease 2 (Usp2), whose status remains controversial, as it may be a cogwheel regulating the stability or activity of core cogwheels or an output effector. This study reports that Usp2 is a clock output effector related to bodily Ca2+ homeostasis, a feature that is conserved across evolution. Drosophila with a whole-body knockdown of the orthologue of Usp2, (Ubiquitin specific protease 2) predominantly die during pupation but are rescued by dietary Ca2+ supplementation. Usp2-KO mice show hyperabsorption of dietary Ca2+ in small intestine, likely due to strong overexpression of the membrane scaffold protein NHERF4, a regulator of the Ca2+ channel TRPV6 mediating dietary Ca2+ uptake. In this tissue, USP2-45 is found in membrane fractions and negatively regulates NHERF4 protein abundance in a rhythmic manner at the protein level. In clock mutant animals (Cry1/Cry2-dKO; see Drosophila Cryptochrome), rhythmic USP2-45 expression is lost, as well as the one of NHERF4, confirming the inverse relationship between USP2-45 and NHERF4 protein levels. Finally, USP2-45 interacts in vitro with NHERF4 and endogenous Clathrin Heavy Chain (see Drosophila Clathrin Heavy Chain). Taken together these data has led the authors to define USP2-45 as the first clock output effector acting at the post-translational level at cell membranes and possibly regulating membrane permeability of Ca2+ (Pouly, 2016).

This study used a laboratory selection approach to raise populations of Drosophila melanogaster that emerge in the morning (early) or in the evening (late), and over 14 years of continued selection, clear divergence of their circadian phenotypes is reported. The molecular correlates of early and late emergence chronotypes were also assessed, and significant divergence is reported in transcriptional regulation, including the mean phase, amplitude and levels of period (per), timeless (tim), clock (clk) and vrille (vri) messenger RNA (mRNA) expression. Corroborating some of the previously reported light-sensitivity and oscillator network coupling differences between the early and the late populations, differences are also reported in mRNA expression of the circadian photoreceptor cryptochrome (cry) and in the mean phase, amplitude and levels of the neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF). These results provide the first-ever direct evidence for divergent evolution of molecular circadian clocks in response to selection imposed on an overt rhythmic behavior and highlight early and late populations as potential models for chronotype studies by providing a preliminary groundwork for further exploration of molecular-genetic correlates underlying circadian clock-chronotype association (Nikhil, 2016).

Circadian clocks are endogenous timers adjusting behaviour and physiology with the solar day. Visual and non-visual photoreceptors are responsible for synchronizing circadian clocks to light, but clock-resetting is also achieved by alternating day and night temperatures with only 2-4 degrees C difference. This study shows that Drosophila Ionotropic Receptor 25a (IR25a) is required for behavioural synchronization to low-amplitude temperature cycles. This channel is expressed in sensory neurons of internal stretch receptors previously implicated in temperature synchronization of the circadian clock. IR25a is required for temperature-synchronized clock protein oscillations in subsets of central clock neurons. Extracellular leg nerve recordings reveal temperature- and IR25a-dependent sensory responses, and IR25a misexpression confers temperature-dependent firing of heterologous neurons. It is proposed that IR25a is part of an input pathway to the circadian clock that detects small temperature differences. This pathway operates in the absence of known 'hot' and 'cold' sensors in the Drosophila antenna, revealing the existence of novel periphery-to-brain temperature signalling channels.

Sleep, a reversible quiescent state found in both invertebrate and vertebrate animals, disconnects animals from their environment and is highly regulated for coordination with wakeful activities, such as reproduction. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has proven to be a valuable model for studying the regulation of sleep by circadian clock and homeostatic mechanisms. This study demonstrates that the Sex peptide receptor (SPR) of Drosophila, known for its role in female reproduction, is also important in stabilizing sleep in both males and females. Mutants lacking either the SPR or its central ligand, myoinhibitory peptide (MIP), fall asleep normally, but have difficulty in maintaining a sleep-like state. This analyses have mapped the SPR sleep function to pigment dispersing factor (pdf) neurons, an arousal center in the insect brain. MIP downregulates intracellular cAMP levels in pdf neurons through the SPR. MIP is released centrally before and during night-time sleep, when the sleep drive is elevated. Sleep deprivation during the night facilitates MIP secretion from specific brain neurons innervating pdf neurons. Moreover, flies lacking either SPR or MIP cannot recover sleep after the night-time sleep deprivation. These results delineate a central neuropeptide circuit that stabilizes the sleep state by feeding a slow-acting inhibitory input into the arousal system and plays an important role in sleep homeostasis (Oh, 2014: PubMed).

Body temperature exhibits rhythmic fluctuations over a 24 h period and decreases during the night, which is associated with sleep initiation. However, the underlying mechanism of this temperature decrease is largely unknown. Previous work has shown that Drosophila exhibit a daily temperature preference rhythm (TPR), in which their preferred temperatures increase during the daytime and then decrease at the transition from day to night (night-onset). Because Drosophila are small ectotherms, their body temperature is very close to that of the ambient temperature, suggesting that their TPR generates their body temperature rhythm. This study demonstrates that the neuropeptide diuretic hormone 31 (DH31) and pigment-dispersing factor receptor (PDFR) contribute to regulate the preferred temperature decrease at night-onset. PDFR and tethered-DH31 expression in dorsal neurons 2 (DN2s) restore the preferred temperature decrease at night-onset, suggesting that DH31 acts on PDFR in DN2s. Notably, it was previously shown that the molecular clock in DN2s is important for TPR. Although PDF (another ligand of PDFR) is a critical factor for locomotor activity rhythms, Pdf mutants exhibit normal preferred temperature decreases at night-onset. This suggests that DH31-PDFR signaling specifically regulates a preferred temperature decrease at night-onset. Thus, it is proposed that night-onset TPR and locomotor activity rhythms are differentially controlled not only by clock neurons but also by neuropeptide signaling in the brain (Goda, 2016).

Body temperature rhythm (BTR) is fundamental for maintaining homeostasis, such as in generating metabolic energy and sleep. BTR is one of the most robust circadian outputs and can affect the peripheral clocks of mammals. The rhythmic patterns of BTR and locomotor activity rhythms are analogous. For instance, in diurnal mammals, both body temperature and locomotor activity increase during the daytime and decrease at night. Nonetheless, BTR and locomotor activity rhythms are regulated by different subsets of subparaventricular zone (SPZ) neurons, suggesting that these rhythms are controlled independently (Goda, 2016).

Mammals are not the only examples of this phenomenon. Previous work has shown that Drosophila exhibit a daily temperature preference rhythm (TPR), in which their preferred temperatures increase during the daytime and then decrease at the transition from day to night (night-onset) (Kaneko, 2012). Because Drosophila are small ectotherms, their body temperature is very close to that of the ambient temperature, suggesting that their TPR generates their BTR. In Drosophila, TPR and locomotor activity rhythms are regulated by different subsets of clock neurons (Kaneko, 2012). There are ~150 central pacemaker cells in the fly brain, which are functionally homologous to mammalian suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) neurons. These pacemaker cells are approximately divided into lateral neurons [LNs; small ventral LNs (s-LNvs), large ventral LNs (l-LNvs), and dorsal lateral neurons (LNds)] and dorsal neurons (DNs; DN1, DN2, and DN3) based on their location and size. The clocks in DN2s are critical for regulating TPR during the daytime (Kaneko, 2012), but not for regulating locomotor activity rhythms (Goda, 2016 and references therein).

Neuropeptides and their receptors have important roles in synchronizing circadian clocks. A class II G-protein-coupled receptor, pigment-dispersing factor receptor (PDFR), and its ligand (PDF) play important roles in synchronizing circadian clocks and are required for robust circadian locomotor activity in Drosophila. Notably, PDF and PDFR function in a similar manner to vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and its receptor VPAC2 in mammals, both of which play important roles in the ability of clock neurons to regulate the rhythmicity and synchrony of both locomotor activity rhythms and BTRs (Goda, 2016).

Recent reports have suggested that, in addition to PDF, diuretic hormone 31 (DH31) also activates PDFR based on in vitro experiments and a study that used brain imaging with bath-applied DH31. Moreover, it has been shown that DH31 is expressed in the posterior dorsal neurons 1 (DN1ps) and that it modulates sleep as a wake-promoting signal before dawn but does not affect locomotor activity rhythms in Drosophila. DH31 is a functional homolog of mammalian calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), which mediates thermosensation and thermoregulation. However, it is unknown whether CGRP is involved in the regulation of BTR in mammals (Goda, 2016).

This study demonstrates that DH31 and PDFR play important roles for TPR at night-onset. DN2s are the main clock cells for TPR, and the data suggest that DH31 binding to PDFR in DN2s regulates temperature preference decreases at night-onset, which is the first in vivo evidence that DH31 could function as a ligand of PDFR. Therefore, it is proposed that circadian locomotor activity and night-onset TPR are regulated by different neuropeptides that use the same receptor expressed in different clock cells (Goda, 2016).

Both Dh31 and Pdfr mutants exhibited abnormal night-onset TPR, and t-DH31 and PDFR expression in DN2s are sufficient to control night-onset TPR, suggesting that DH31 could be a ligand of PDFR in DN2s. Unexpectedly, PDF, an important neuropeptide for locomotor activity, is not required for night-onset TPR. It suggests that PDF and DH31 appear to act on different subsets of PDFR-expressing clock cells to regulate locomotor activity rhythms and night-onset TPR, respectively. Together, the data suggest that locomotor activity and night-onset TPR are regulated through PDFR by different subsets of clock neurons using different neuropeptides. Nonetheless, because all Dh31, Pdf, and Pdfr mutants still maintain normal daytime TPR, the underlying molecular mechanisms of daytime TPR are still obscure (Goda, 2016).

In humans, body temperature dramatically decreases at night, which is associated with sleep initiation. Although it suggests a relationship between BTR and sleep-wake cycles, the underlying mechanisms are largely unclear. A recent study suggested that DH31 mediates sleep-wake cycles and that DH31 secretion functions as a wake-promoting signal before dawn. Given that it was found that DH31 is required for night-onset TPR, DH31 could regulate both sleep-wake cycles and TPR with different timing (i.e., at night-onset for TPR and before dawn for sleep) (Goda, 2016).

While t-DH31 expression in DN2s rescues the Dh31#51 phenotype, t-PDF expression in DN2s slightly rescues in comparison with UAS controls. This shows that t-DH31 in DN2s rescues more efficiently than t-PDF in DN2s. However, DH31 stimulates PDFR less efficiently than PDF in vitro. This suggests that either DH31 may more efficiently bind PDFR in DN2s than PDF or that DN2s may express another receptor of DH31 that also regulates night-onset TPR. Notably, although the DH31 receptor (DH31R) is a known receptor for DH31 in vitro, this study observed that DH31R is not expressed in DN2s and that the Dh31r mutant exhibited normal night-onset TPR. Therefore, it would be interesting to further explore whether additional receptors for DH31 in DN2s are involved in night-onset TPR. It has been previously shown that flies in the light prefer a 1°C higher temperature than in the dark (light-dependent temperature preference [LDTP]), thus demonstrating that light influences temperature preference behavior. Importantly, while LDTP is only affected by light, night-onset TPR is affected by both light and time (ZT10-ZT12 and ZT13-ZT15). Therefore, they are not controlled by the same pathway. In fact, PDFR expression using Clk4.5F-Gal4 rescues the abnormal LDTP phenotype of Pdfr5304 mutants, but it did not rescue night-onset TPR (Goda, 2016).

DH31 is a functional homolog of mammalian CGRP. Importantly, CGRP is related to many physiological functions, such as temperature sensation, migraines, and chronic pain in mammals. CGRP has recently attracted attention for its role in the treatment of migraine attacks, which are associated with body-temperature fluctuations. Additionally, CGRP is expressed in the SCN, but its function in circadian rhythms is not entirely clear. Thus, the findings raise the possibility that CGRP may be involved in BTR regulation and may mediate the connection between the circadian clock and other physiological functions. Moreover, this research will not only expand current understanding of neuropeptidergic regulation, but may also ultimately facilitate a discovery of the fundamental mechanisms of BTR (Goda, 2016).

To maintain homeostasis, animals must ingest appropriate quantities, determined by their internal nutritional state, of suitable nutrients. In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, an amino acid deficit induces a specific appetite for amino acids and thus results in their increased consumption. Although multiple processes of physiology, metabolism, and behavior are under circadian control in many organisms, it is unclear whether the circadian clock also modulates such motivated behavior driven by an internal need. Differences in levels of amino acid consumption by flies between the light and dark phases of the day:night cycle were examined using a capillary feeder assay following amino acid deprivation. Female flies exhibited increased consumption of amino acids during the dark phase compared with the light phase. Investigation of mutants lacking a functional period gene (per⁰), a well-characterized clock gene in Drosophila, found no difference between the light and dark phases in amino acid consumption by per⁰ flies. Furthermore, increased consumption of amino acids during the dark phase was observed in mated but not in virgin females, which strongly suggested that mating is involved in the rhythmic modulation of amino acid intake. Egg production, which is induced by mating, did not affect the rhythmic change in amino acid consumption, although egg-laying behavior showed a per⁰-dependent change in rhythm. Elevated consumption of amino acids during the dark phase was partly induced by the action of a seminal protein, sex peptide (SP), on the sex peptide receptor (SPR) in females. Moreover, the increased consumption of amino acids during the dark phase is induced in mated females independently of their internal level of amino acids. These results suggest that a post-mating SP/SPR signal elevates amino acid consumption during the dark phase via the circadian clock (Uchizono, 2017).

The dopamine ontogeny hypothesis for schizophrenia proposes that transient dysregulation of the dopaminergic system during brain development increases the likelihood of this disorder in adulthood. To test this hypothesis in a high-throughput animal model, this study transiently manipulated dopamine signaling in the developing fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and examined behavioral responsiveness in adult flies. Either a transient increase of dopamine neuron activity or a transient decrease of dopamine receptor expression during fly brain development permanently impairs behavioral responsiveness in adults. A screen for impaired responsiveness revealed sleep-promoting neurons in the central brain as likely postsynaptic dopamine targets modulating these behavioral effects. Transient dopamine receptor knockdown during development in a restricted set of ~20 sleep-promoting neurons recapitulated the dopamine ontogeny phenotype, by permanently reducing responsiveness in adult animals. This suggests that disorders involving impaired behavioral responsiveness might result from defective ontogeny of sleep/wake circuits (Ferguson, 2017).

Circadian coordination of metabolism, physiology, and behaviour is found in all living kingdoms. Clock genes are transcriptional regulators, and their rhythmic activities generate daily rhythms in clock-controlled genes which result in cellular and organismal rhythms. Insects provide numerous examples of rhythms in behaviour and reproduction, but less is known about control of metabolic processes by circadian clocks in insects. Recent data suggest that several pathways involved in protecting cells from oxidative stress may be modulated by the circadian system, including genes involved in glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis. Specifically, rhythmic expression of the gene encoding the catalytic subunit (Gclc) of the rate-limiting GSH biosynthetic enzyme was detected in Drosophila melanogaster heads. The aim of this study was to determine which clocks in the fly multi-oscillatory circadian system are responsible for Gclc rhythms. Genetic disruption of tissue-specific clocks in D. melanogaster revealed that transcriptional rhythms in Gclc mRNA levels occur independently of the central pacemaker neurons, because these rhythms persisted in heads of behaviourally arrhythmic flies with a disabled central clock but intact peripheral clocks. Disrupting the clock specifically in glial cells abolished rhythmic expression of Gclc, suggesting that glia play an important role in Gclc transcriptional regulation, which may contribute to maintaining homeostasis in the fly nervous system (Chow, 2017).

Sleep is under homeostatic control, whereby increasing wakefulness generates sleep need and triggers sleep drive. However, the molecular and cellular pathways by which sleep need is encoded are poorly understood. In addition, the mechanisms underlying both how and when sleep need is transformed to sleep drive are unknown. Using ex vivo and in vivo imaging, this study shows in Drosophila that astroglial Ca(2+) signaling increases with sleep need. This signaling is dependent on a specific L-type Ca(2+) channel and is necessary for homeostatic sleep rebound. Thermogenetically increasing Ca(2+) in astrocytes induces persistent sleep behavior, and this phenotype was exploited to conduct a genetic screen for genes required for the homeostatic regulation of sleep. From this large-scale screen, TyrRII, a monoaminergic receptor required in astrocytes for sleep homeostasis, was identifed. TyrRII levels rise following sleep deprivation in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner, promoting further increases in astrocytic Ca(2+) and resulting in a positive-feedback loop. Moreover, these findings suggest that astrocytes then transmit this sleep need to a sleep drive circuit by upregulating and releasing the interleukin-1 analog Spätzle, which then acts on Toll receptors on R5 neurons. These findings define astroglial Ca(2+) signaling mechanisms encoding sleep need and reveal dynamic properties of the sleep homeostatic control system (Blum, 2020).

Although astrocytes have been implicated in the homeostatic regulation of sleep, their specific role and the underlying mechanisms are unresolved. The current data support a role for astrocytes as sensors of sleep need and define signaling mechanisms within these cells that mediate the integration and transmission of this information to a downstream homeostatic sleep circuit. In this model, neural activity is sensed by astrocytic processes, leading to an increase in Ca2+ levels, which depends at least in part on specific L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCC). Although astrocytes have been shown to exhibit hyperpolarized membrane potentials with small depolarizations, this particular subtype of L-type VGCC can be activated at substantially lower membrane potentials than other members of this channel family. Interestingly, two recent studies in mice found that intracellular Ca2+ levels in astrocytes vary across sleep/wake states and that Ca2+ signaling in these cells is required for normal sleep architecture and responses to sleep deprivation. These observations suggest a conserved role for astroglial Ca2+ signaling in sleep homeostasis (Blum, 2020).

The current model further suggests that, as the increased neural activity persists, Ca2+-mediated transcription of TyrRII is induced in astrocytes. TyrRII is relatively unstudied, but in vitro data suggest that it responds non-specifically to multiple monoamines. Thus, its upregulation in astrocytes should sensitize these cells to signaling via monoamines, which are intimately associated with wakefulness. The requirement for monoamines in this pathway may provide a logic gate for the system, imparting specificity to the signaling mechanism acting downstream of neural activity, whose semantic properties may be too broad. TyrRII itself is required for further Ca2+ elevations, forming a positive-feedback loop (Blum, 2020).

The data suggest that this amplification of astrocytic Ca2+ signals results in transcriptional upregulation of spz, the fly analog of IL-1. There is an accumulating body of evidence implicating IL-1 in sleep homeostasis in mammals, and the current findings demonstrating a functional role for astrocytic Spz in sleep homeostasis demonstrate that these mechanisms are conserved from invertebrates to vertebrates. In this model, Spz is released from astrocytes under conditions of strong sleep need and transmits this information by signaling to a central sleep drive circuit (the R5 neurons) to promote homeostatic sleep rebound. It is worth noting that fly astrocytes likely possess multiple output mechanisms to regulate sleep, as they not only activate sleep-promoting neurons (R5 neurons) but also inhibit arousal-promoting neurons (l-LNvs) (Blum, 2020).

From a broader perspective, this model draws attention to a fundamental, yet poorly understood, aspect of sleep homeostasis-how a highly dynamic input (i.e., neural activity operating on the millisecond timescale) is integrated and transformed to generate a sleep homeostatic force that functions on a significantly slower timescale. Although the precise identity of the signals embodying sleep need remain unclear, there is substantial experimental and conceptual support for the notion that neural activity increases with wakefulness and is a key trigger for this process. Yet the dynamic mechanisms by which this neural activity and, by extension, sleep need are transformed to sleep drive are unknown. The homeostatic regulation of processes and behaviors involving bistable states, such as sleep versus wakefulness, requires a prominent delay between the detection of the disturbance and the generation of the response. In addition, the stability and switching between such bistable states can be facilitated by positive-feedback loops. It is speculated that the transcription/translation of TyrRII, coupled with the generation of a positive-feedback loop, provide a timing delay followed by a more rapid elevation in astroglial Ca2+ after reaching a set threshold, thus enabling a non-linear response to the continual sampling of sleep need. The transcriptional/translation upregulation of Spz could represent an additional layer of delay (Blum, 2020).

Flies can form sleep-dependent and sleep-independent memory in an appetitive conditioning paradigm, but how they switch between these distinct forms of memory consolidation remains unexplored. This study found that Gr64f GRNs-mediated sweet taste signal is essential for sleep-dependent memory. Sweet taste activates a specific subset of PAM DANs, PAM-β'2mp, for the consolidation of sleep-dependent memory. In contrast, in the absence of sweet stimulus, sleep becomes dispensable for memory consolidation and PAM-α1 DANs are recruited to form long-term memory. These findings indicate that the presence of reward can modulate the role of sleep in memory consolidation (Chouhan, 2022).

Taste serves as an important modality in feeding decisions in Drosophila as perceived sweetness is used to estimate the carbohydrate content of food. Flies prefer sweet sugars over substances with a higher nutritive value indicating that taste determines initial feeding preferences. Sweetness drives sugar ingestion during odor-reward pairing that is essential to form appetitive memories. Also, sweet taste tempers food-seeking behavior as flies on a sweet but non-nutritive medium show lower activity than starved flies. Therefore, the presence of sweet taste modifies behavior by providing a sensation of food (Chouhan, 2022).

Flies kept on food vials require sleep to form appetitive memories (Chouhan, 2021). As in the case of the other behaviors mentioned above, sweet taste appears to be sufficient to signal the presence of food and thereby trigger sleep-dependent memory formation. Flies kept on sucralose, a sweet but non-nutritive sugar, show an enhancement in post-training sleep and require sleep to consolidate long-term memory. In contrast, flies on sorbitol, a tasteless but nutritive substance, form sleep-independent memory. Also, disrupting the activity of sweet-sensing Gr64f+ neurons results in the formation of sleep-independent memory in fed flies, while stimulating Gr64f+ neurons in starved flies induces a switch to sleep-dependent memory consolidation. While sweet taste may induce sleep-dependent memory, it is also possible that processes driving sleep-dependent and sleep-independent memory consolidation interact so as to be mutually exclusive. For instance, as starvation suppresses sleep, it may trigger sleep-independent memory, while sweet taste could drive sleep-dependent memory consolidation by releasing starvation-induced suppression of sleep. Neural connections between the two relevant circuits (described below) could mediate such interactions (Chouhan, 2022).

Sleep is typically thought to be induced under conditions of higher energy consumption; however, the data indicate that, at least for sleep-dependent memory consolidation, sweet taste rather than caloric intake serves as a signal for sleep. Sweet taste is not an accurate reporter for the nutritional value of food. Indeed, flies switch their preference from non-nutritive sweeteners to tasteless nutritive sugars over time in a two-choice assay. Therefore, sweet taste can only provide a short-term impression of the presence of food, which might be sufficient to induce sleep-dependent consolidation as flies form sleep-dependent or sleep-independent memory in the first 4 h after training (Chouhan, 2022).

The reward signal from PAM DANs during training is essential to form odor-reward associations. MB neurons are tiled by individual DAN terminals and the dendrites of corresponding MBONs to form 15 anatomically and functionally distinct compartments. PAM DANs largely innervate distinct compartments of the horizontal MB lobes. As per a previous study, a recurrent circuit that couples PAM-α1 DANs with the corresponding MBON in the α1 MB compartment mediates appetitive memory consolidation in starved flies. However, the current study found that PAM-α1 DANs are dispensable for memory consolidation in fed flies. Instead, PAM DANs that innervate the β'2mp compartment of the MB are essential for long-term memory in fed flies. Consistent with the findings that distinct PAM DANs mediate memory consolidation in fed versus starved states, the activity of PAM-β'2mp DANs was higher in trained and fed flies, while calcium in PAM-α1 DANs was significantly higher in trained and starved flies. These results complement previous work in rats, humans, and flies demonstrating that discrete neural circuits mediate sleep-dependent and sleep-independent memory consolidation (Chouhan, 2022).

PAM-β'2mp DANs signal reward to form 'safety-memory' of the unpaired odor during spaced aversive conditioning. Intriguingly, these neurons connect to MBONs implicated in appetitive memory consolidation under fed and starved conditions. PAM-β'2mp DANs receive input from MBON-γ2α'1 neurons, which are required for memory under fed conditions, and through axo-axonic projections they connect to the MBON-γ1Pedc neurons that are essential for memory under starved conditions. It is proposed that MBON-γ2α'1 neurons engage PAM-β'2mp DAN-mediated reward signaling to establish a sleep-dependent memory trace. By contrast, an axo-axonal connection from MBON-γ1Pedc neurons may modulate neurotransmission in PAM-β'2mp DANs such that it allows PAM-α1 DANs to form sleep-independent memory. Future work can investigate how these discrete neural circuits interact to form sleep-dependent or sleep-independent memories (Chouhan, 2022).

Sweet taste is perceived by a set of seven transmembrane receptors on the proboscis and tarsal segments of the leg. The taste information is transmitted by GRNs that terminate in the suboesophageal ganglion. Second-order neurons of the gustatory system send projections from the suboesophageal ganglion to the central brain for higher-order processing of taste information. A subset of these projections terminates in the superior protocerebrum that also contains processes from DANs. Consistent with a connection between sweet-sensing neurons and DANs, an exposure to sucrose evokes a robust calcium response in PAM DANs. Therefore, sweet taste may signal reward by stimulating PAM DANs. Consistently, a significant calcium/GFP increase in PAM-β'2mp DANs was found in fed flies compared with starved flies. Also, flies kept on arabinose or sucralose after training demonstrate a significant increase in PAM-β'2mp DAN activity compared with flies moved to sorbitol following training. It is suggested that the Gr64f+ GRNs mediated sweet taste signal acts in conjunction with the feedback from MBON-γ2α'1 neurons to recruit PAM-β'2mp DANs to form sleep-dependent memory (Chouhan, 2022).

Rewarding experiences modulate behavior to enhance survival. These experiences are preferentially replayed during sleep for better retention. Indeed, memory consolidation involves neuronal reactivation in the mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system during sleep. Conversely, sleep loss modifies reactivity in the reward centers of the brain such that it induces reward-seeking behavior. This work suggests that the processing of sweet taste reward signals determines the necessity for sleep in memory consolidation. A general role for reward in determining the need for sleep is open to investigation (Chouhan, 2022).

Starvation causes a motivational state that facilitates diverse behaviors such as feeding, walking, and search. Starved Drosophila can form odor/feeding-time associations but the role of starvation in encoding of "time" is poorly understood. This study shows that the extent of starvation is correlated with the fly's ability to establish odor/feeding-time memories. Prolonged starvation promotes odor/feeding-time associations after just a single cycle of reciprocal training. Starvation is also show to be required for acquisition but is dispensable for retrieval of odor/feeding-time memory. Finally, even with extended starvation, a functional circadian oscillator is indispensable for establishing odor/feeding-time memories (Chouhan, 2017).

Sleep remains a major mystery of biology, with little understood about its basic function. One of the most commonly proposed functions of sleep is the consolidation of memory. However, as conditions such as starvation require the organism to be awake and active, the ability to switch to a memory consolidation mechanism that is not contingent on sleep may confer an evolutionary advantage. This study identified an adaptive circuit-based mechanism that enables Drosophila to form sleep-dependent and sleep-independent memory. Flies fed after appetitive conditioning needed increased sleep for memory consolidation, but flies starved after training did not require sleep to form memories. Memory in fed flies is mediated by the anterior-posterior α'/β' neurons of the mushroom body, while memory under starvation is mediated by medial α'/β' neurons. Sleep-dependent and sleep-independent memory rely on distinct dopaminergic neurons and corresponding mushroom body output neurons. However, sleep and memory are coupled such that mushroom body neurons required for sleep-dependent memory also promote sleep. Flies lacking Neuropeptide F display sleep-dependent memory even when starved, suggesting that circuit selection is determined by hunger. This plasticity in memory circuits enables flies to retain essential information in changing environments (Chouhan, 2020).

The small ventral lateral neurons (sLNvs) constitute a central circadian pacemaker in the Drosophila brain. They organize daily locomotor activity, partly through the release of the neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF), coordinating the action of the remaining clusters required for network synchronization. Despite extensive efforts, the basic principles underlying communication among circadian clusters remain obscure. This study identified classical neurotransmitters released by sLNvs through disruption of specific transporters. Adult-specific RNAi-mediated downregulation of the glycine transporter or impairment of glycine synthesis in LNv neurons increased period length by nearly an hour without affecting rhythmicity of locomotor activity. Electrophysiological recordings showed that glycine reduces spiking frequency in circadian neurons. Interestingly, downregulation of glycine receptor subunits in specific sLNv targets impaired rhythmicity, revealing involvement of glycine in information processing within the network. These data identify glycinergic inhibition of specific targets as a cue that contributes to the synchronization of the circadian network (Frenkel, 2017).

Anatomical and functional evidence indicates that classical neurotransmitters participate along with PDF in the output of the LNvs. In an attempt to define their classical neurotransmitter, this study manipulated the level of membrane or vesicular transporters of known neurotransmitter systems exclusively in this neuronal group. Downregulation of CG5549, the glycine transporter (dGlyT) responsible for recycling this transmitter from the extracellular space, triggered a consistent change in the endogenous period. This effect is specific, as downregulation of List (CG15088, the lithium-inducible SLC6 transporter) did not change any circadian parameter. On the other hand, downregulation of Drosophila Serine hydroxymethyltransferase CG3011 (dShmt; glycine hydroxymethyltransferase activity) also gives rise to period lengthening, consistent with an effect on the circadian clock as opposed to a general effect on LNv viability, which results in progressive loss of rhythmicity. Interestingly, it has been shown that expression of a tethered version of PDF in the LNvs in a condition where neurotransmitters cannot be released increases in almost an hour the endogenous circadian period, suggesting that neurotransmission contributes to rhythm acceleration, lending further support the findings showing that glycine plays such a role in the adult brain (Frenkel, 2017).

Glycinergic inhibitory transmission plays a role in nociception and motor control in the brainstem and spinal cord. Glycine is also a modulator of neuronal excitation mediated by NMDA receptors at glutamatergic synapses in the central brain. This study found glycine in the Drosophila CNS (specifically, in a subset of circadian pacemakers) and found that it stops action potential firing in a postsynaptic target. Interestingly, at least some neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) are inhibited in the presence of glycine, highlighting another layer of conservation among circadian clocks (Frenkel, 2017).

Glycine receptors are part of the complex cys-loop receptor family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels. Part of the complexity resides in their ability to assemble specific receptors depending on the subunits recruited, thus leading to both excitatory and inhibitory responses. Little is known about the glycinergic ones, particularly in the fruit fly. Initially, a single gene was reported as the putative glycine receptor GRD. To identify additional glycine subunits, an in silico approach was used. Three putative glycine receptor subunits share conserved features present in ligand-gated chloride channel ones. Interestingly, combined downregulation of those genes in DN1ps revealed they mediate, in part, the response to glycine. Additional subunits are also required to form other types of glycine receptors. GRD was shown to assemble functional GABA receptors in Xenopus oocytes only in the context of Lcch3, highlighting the underlying complexity. Grd is also involved in GABAergic transmission, as its downregulation in specific patterns attenuates the sleep-promoting effects of a GABA-A-R agonist. Thus, depending on the collection of subunits expressed in a particular neuron, GRD takes part of receptors that respond to different neurotransmitters (Frenkel, 2017).

Several scenarios are envisioned accounting for the mismatch between depleting glycine in PDF neurons and the inability to respond to it in circadian targets. If other circadian neurons communicate time-related information through this fast neurotransmitter, downregulating glycine availability in LNvs would surely give rise to a different behavioral output than chronic downregulation of a subset of GlyR subunits in the entire circadian network. Additional non-circadian neurons could also be relevant in defining the properties of locomotor behavior, and the resulting unbalance (derived from inhibition of certain circadian clusters while the non-circadian remain active) would be the cause for the desynchronization; candidate neurons would be the pars intercerebralis. Alternatively, since the three subunits analyzed in this study do not assemble all functional GlyRs, a partial impairment of glycinergic transmission is ensured. In addition, neurons could express different spliced variants of each subunit hampering the efficiency of RNAi. In sum, modifying the stoichiometry among different receptor subunits in discrete neuronal subsets may alter the properties of native glycine receptors in an unpredictable manner (i.e., ligand affinity, ion conductance, and channel kinetics), influencing neuronal responsiveness to glycine and ultimately impinging on neuronal firing. Thus, behavioral complexity ultimately reflects the combination of functional changes in individual neuronal clusters and the orchestration resulting from network interactions (Frenkel, 2017).

Drastically altering neuronal excitability triggered shortening or lengthening of the circadian period, depending on the cluster. Likewise, disrupting glycinergic transmission led to cluster-associated changes in the free-running period. Interestingly, downregulation of single receptor subunits in the DN1ps lengthened the period, further supporting their relevance and their ability to feed back onto the sLNvs. On the other hand, altering glycine transmission onto the LNds+5thsLNv gave rise to a shorter period, a phenotype also observed upon downregulation of all three subunits, in either the E-oscillator or the whole circadian network. Interestingly, a short period phenotype accompanied by deconsolidation of rhythmic activity is a hallmark of pdf⁰¹ mutants, in which the LNds are uncoupled from the sLNvs and run at a faster pace; these similarities open the provocative possibility that both PDF and glycine released from the sLNvs play a similar role onto the LNds. Altogether, these results support the notion that each cluster has a differential contribution to the dynamic operation of the circadian network (Frenkel, 2017).

It has been suggested that electrical activity integrates phase information from endogenous oscillators within different regions of the SCN. In that model, the ventral SCN can shift the dorsal SCN and cause it to resynchronize to the new phase, and GABA is required for coupling those two regions. The fact that the sLNvs release an inhibitory neurotransmitter onto dorsal clusters is reminiscent of GABA’s role. In the SCN, Cl^- reversal potential changes during the day in different circadian clusters, giving rise to either excitatory or inhibitory responses to GABA; if this were true in Drosophila, glycinergic responses could also change in a time-of-day fashion (Frenkel, 2017).

It is not necessarily envisioned that glycine operates as a synchronizing cue to the molecular clocks, a role already shown to depend on PDF, but instead, it might coordinate the activity of independent clusters to provide coherence to the circadian network. Under this scenario, it is proposed the that sLNvs are acting as an orchestra conductor that relies on at least two batons: one fast inhibiting signal (glycine) and a slower excitatory one (PDF). Thus, the sLNv could operate as a time-of-day switch that rapidly turns off specific targets to keep the circadian network synchronized (Frenkel, 2017).

Antibiotics have been identified as obesogens contributing to the prevalence of obesity. Moreover, their environmental toxicity shows sex dependence, which might also explain the sex-dependent obesity observed. Yet, the direct evidence for such a connection and the underlying mechanisms remain to be explored. In this study, the effects of tetracycline, which is a representative antibiotic found in both environmental and food samples, on Drosophila melanogaster were studied with consideration of both sex and circadian rhythms (represented by the eclosion rhythm). Results showed that in morning-eclosed adults, tetracycline significantly stimulated the body weight of females (AM females) at 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 and 100.0 μg/L, while tetracycline only stimulated the body weight of males (AM males) at 1.0 μg/L. In the afternoon-eclosed adults, tetracycline significantly stimulated the body weight of females (PM females) at 0.1, 1.0 and 100.0 μg/L, while it showed more significant stimulation in males (PM males) at all concentrations. Notably, the stimulation levels were the greatest in PM males among all the adults. The results showed the clear sex dependence of the obesogenic effects, which was diminished by dysrhythmia. Further biochemical assays and clustering analysis suggested that the sex- and rhythm-dependent obesogenic effects resulted from the bias toward lipogenesis against lipolysis. Moreover, they were closely related to the preference for the energy storage forms of lactate and glucose and also to the presence of excessive insulin, with the involvement of glucolipid metabolism. Such relationships indicated potential bridges between the obesogenic effects of pollutants and other diseases, e.g., cancer and diabetes (Guo, 2023).

The physiology and behavior of many organisms are subject to daily cycles. In Drosophila melanogaster the daily locomotion patterns of single flies are characterized by bursts of activity at dawn and dusk. Two distinct clusters of clock neurons-morning oscillators (M cells) and evening oscillators (E cells)-are largely responsible for these activity bursts. In contrast, male-female pairs of flies follow a distinct pattern, most notably characterized by an activity trough at dusk followed by a high level of male courtship during the night. This male sex drive rhythm (MSDR) is mediated by the M cells along with DN1 neurons, a cluster of clock neurons located in the dorsal posterior region of the brain. This study reports that males lacking Salt-inducible kinase 3 (SIK3) expression in M cells exhibit a short period of MSDR but a long period of single-fly locomotor rhythm (SLR). Moreover, lack of Sik3 in M cells decreases the amplitude of Period (Per) cycling in DN1 neurons, suggesting that SIK3 non-cell-autonomously regulates DN1 neurons' molecular clock. This study also shows that Sik3 reduction interferes with circadian nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of Histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4), a SIK3 phosphorylation target, in clock neurons and that constitutive HDAC4 localization in the nucleus shortens the period of MSDR. Taking these findings together, it is concluded that SIK3-HDAC4 signaling in M cells regulates MSDR by regulating the molecular oscillation in DN1 neurons (Fujii, 2017).

The physiology and behavior of most animals undergo daily oscillations, which are controlled by a small set of clock neurons in the brain. In mammals, a heterodimeric complex between CLOCK (CLK) and BMAL1 activates transcription of Period (Per1 and Per2) and Cryptochrome (Cry1 and Cry2) genes, and their protein products in turn inhibit the activity of CLK/BMAL1. Likewise, Drosophila heterodimeric complexes between CLK and CYCLE (CYC) activate the genes period (per) and timeless (tim), and their respective protein products repress CLK/CYC. These conserved negative-feedback loops, which include several kinases, produce rhythmic transcription profiles in numerous genes (Fujii, 2017).

The Drosophila brain contains ∼150 clock neurons which are divided into seven clusters based on their anatomical locations and functional characteristics: the small and large ventral lateral neurons (sLNvs and lLNvs), the dorsal lateral neurons (LNds), the lateral posterior neurons (LPNs), and three dorsal neuron clusters (DN1-3). Some of these clock neurons have distinct functions in circadian locomotor behavior. Specifically, four sLNvs, also referred to as 'morning' (M) cells, express the neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) and control the timing of morning locomotor activity during light:dark (LD) cycles; these neurons are also the key pacemaker neurons in constant darkness (DD). The fifth, PDF−, sLNv and the LNds, referred to as 'evening' (E) cells, are required for the generation of the evening activity peak in LD cycles. Communication between various groups of cells within this interconnected neural network enhances the synchrony of molecular oscillation in each neuron (Fujii, 2017).

Ventral lateral neuron (LNv)-derived PDF plays a critical role in regulating the molecular clock. Specifically, PDF participates in synchronization of clock neurons by up-regulating cAMP, which activates PKA, which in turn regulates the stability of PER and TIM in PDF receptor (PDFR)-expressing target neurons. Thus, ion status and is regu neurosecretory signaling: In well-fed flies, SIK3 is thought to be indirectly activated by insulin-likeavioral rhythms even when flies are kept in DD (Fujii, 2017).

Locomotor activity is the best-characterized circadian behavior in Drosophila, but numerous other behaviors, such as courtship and mating, sleep, and feeding, are under strong circadian influence. Previously work has shown that male-female pairs of flies exhibit activity patterns strikingly distinct from those of singly kept males or females (i.e., single-fly locomotor rhythm or SLR) or same-sex pairs of flies. The activity pattern of male-female pairs, which is referred to as 'male sex-drive rhythm' (MSDR), is characterized by a trough at subjective dusk, followed by a sharp increase in male-driven courtship activity (especially 'following' behavior) that peaks during the subjective night. A functional molecular clock in both Pdf⁺ LNvs and DN1 neurons is necessary and sufficient for proper MSDR. However, few other cellular and molecular components contributing to MSDR have been identified to date. Specifically, information is lacking about both the molecular and cellular identity of downstream effectors of the main clock components that are important for MSDR (Fujii, 2017).

This study reports the identification of two downstream effectors of the molecular clock that play distinct roles in MSDR and SLR. Using an RNAi screen for kinases, this study shows that Salt-inducible kinase 3 (SIK3) is a critical component for circadian behavior. Sik3<