The Interactive Fly
Zygotically transcribed genes
Genes coding for adherens junction proteins
Genes coding for septate junction proteins
Genes coding for neuromuscular junction proteins
Integrin adhesion (focal adhesion) junctions
Non-junctional proteins that indirectly effect junctions and cell polarity
Development of junctions and distribution of proteins in junctions
Analysis has been carried out on the pattern and development of cellular junctions in the different tissues of the Drosophila embryo from the blastoderm stage until hatching. The cellular junctions found include: gap junctions, two types of septate junctions, and several types of cell-cell and cell-substrate adherens junctions. During early and mid embryogenesis (stages 4 to 13) only spot adherens junctions, gap junctions, and zonulae adherentes (circumferential adherens junctions) prevail. Scattered spot adherens junctions are already formed at the blastoderm stage. During and shortly after gastrulation, spot adherens junctions become concentrated at the apical pole and fuse into continuous zonulae adherentes in the posterior endoderm and the ectoderm. In addition to the zonulae adherentes, ectodermally derived epithelia possess scattered gap junctions and form pleated septate junctions and hemiadherens junctions during late embryogenesis (stages 14 to 17). Hemiadherens junctions (HAJ) are junctions connecting muscles directly to epidermal cells and are characterized either by the presence of an intervening extracellular electron-dense material (connecting HAJ) or by the presence of an intervening tendon (tendon HAJ) (Tepass, 1994 and Prokop, 1998).
Mesenchymal tissues (i.e., all nonepithelial tissues of the embryo, including the neural primordium and, transiently, the mesoderm and endoderm) possess both spot adherens junctions and gap junctions at a low frequency. Initially, the midgut epithelium does not establish a junctional complex and possesses only gap junctions and spot adherens junctions. Only late in development does a circumferential smooth septate junction develop; zonulae adherentes are missing. The various derivatives of the mesoderm express spot adherens junctions, hemiadherens junctions, and gap junctions, but never zonulae adherentes or septate junctions. After organogenesis, several different types of tissue-specific adherens junctions are formed, among them connecting hemiadherens junctions (between gut epithelium and visceral muscle and early during the formation of the muscle tendon junction); muscle tendon junctions (between somatic muscle and tendon cells); fasciae adherentes (between the cells of both the visceral muscle and the dorsal vessel), and autocellular nephrocyte junctions (in nephrocytes). Interesting exceptions to the general pattern of junctional development are provided by the outer epithelial layer of the proventriculus and the Malpighian tubules. Both tissues develop as typical ectodermal epithelia and possess zonulae adherentes. During late embryogenesis, both epithelia lose the zonulae adherentes and form smooth rather than pleated septate junctions, thereby expressing a junctional complex similar to that of the endodermally derived midgut epithelium (Tepass, 1994).
The distribution of proteins in the apico-lateral cell junctions has been examined in Drosophila imaginal discs. Antibodies to phosphotyrosine (PY), Armadillo (Arm) and Drosophila E-cadherin (DE-cad) as well as FITC phalloidin (which marks filamentous actin) labels the site of the adherens junction, whereas antibodies to Discs large (Dlg), Fasciclin 3 (Fas3) and Coracle (Cor) label the more basal septate junction. The junctional proteins labeled by these antibodies undergo specific changes in distribution during the cell cycle. A loss-of-function dlg mutation, which causes neoplastic imaginal disc overgrowth, leads to loss of the septate junctions and the formation of what appear to be ectopic adherens junctions. Based on staining with PY and Dlg antibodies, the apico-lateral junctional complexes appear normal in tissue from the hyperplastic overgrowth mutants fat facets, discs overgrown, lethal (2) giant discs and warts. However, imaginal disc tissue from the neoplastic overgrowth mutants dlg and lethal giant larvae show abnormal distribution of the junctional markers, including a complete loss of apico-basal polarity in loss-of-function dlg mutations. These results support the idea that some of the proteins of apico-lateral junctions are required both for apico-basal cell polarity and for the signaling mechanisms controlling cell proliferation, whereas others are required more specifically in cell-cell signaling (Woods, 1997).
The role of integrins was examined in the formation of the cell junctions that connect muscles to epidermis (muscle attachments) and muscles to neurons (neuromuscular junctions). At the ultrastructural level two types of muscle attachments can be distinguished: direct and indirect. At the direct muscle attachments, single muscles (such as the transverse muscles) attach to epidermal cells directly such that the hemiadherens junctions (HAJs) in opposing cells are separated by only 30-40nm, with a thin line of extracellular electron-dense material in between. These closed paired HAJs are referred to as connecting HAJs. Indirect muscle attachments occur at the segmental border, where the ends of multiple muscles attach at the same epidermal site, and contain extensive extracellular matrix consisting of fuzzy electron dense fibers, separated by up to several micrometers. This is referred to as tendon matrix because, like the vertebrate tendons, it is an extracellular matrix used to attach the muscles. Since HAJs at indirect muscle attachments are not closely paired but connected to the tendon matrix, they are referred to as tendon HAJs. Both types of muscle attachments have a common molecular basis: both contain PS integrins; both are sites were large secreted proteins Tiggrin and Masquerade accumulate; the intracellular appearance of connecting HAJs and tendon HAJs looks similar; connecting HAJs and tendon HAJs can appear together at the same site; they both appear to arise from short connecting HAJs; and both HAJs are separated from the extracellular electron dense matrix by a translucent gap of a few nanometers (Prokop, 1998).
Muscle attachments and neuromuscular junctions were examined ultrastructurally in single or double mutant Drosophila embryos lacking PS1 integrin (alphaPS1betaPS), PS2 integrin (alphaPS2betaPS), and/or their potential extracellular ligand Laminin A. At the muscle attachments PS integrins are essential for the adhesion of hemiadherens junctions to extracellular matrix, but not for their intracellular link to the cytoskeleton. The intracellular electron-dense material of connecting HAJs and tendon HAJs connects to microfilaments in the muscles, and to microtubules in the epidermis. The epidermal microtubules are anchored at the other end to apical focal HAJs that connect to the cuticle (Prokop, 1998).
The PS2 integrin is only expressed in the muscles, but it is essential for the adhesion of muscle and epidermal HAJs to electron dense extracellular matrix. PS2 integrin is also required for adhesion of muscle HAJs to a less electron dense form of extracellular matrix, the basement membrane. The PS1 integrin is expressed in epidermal cells and can mediate adhesion of the epidermal HAJs to the basement membrane. The ligands involved in adhesion mediated by both PS integrins seem distinct because adhesion mediated by PS1 appears to require the extracellular matrix component Laminin A, while adhesion mediated by PS2 integrin does not (Prokop, 1998).
At neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) the formation of functional synapses occurs normally in embryos lacking PS integrins and/or Laminin A, but the extent of contact between neuronal and muscle surfaces is altered significantly in embryos lacking laminin A. It is suggested that neuromuscular contact does not require laminin A directly at its point of contact, but requires basement membrane adhesion to the general muscle surface, and this form of adhesion is completely abolished in the absence of Laminin A. In contrast, loss of PS integrin function causes the boutons to make a more extensive contact with the muscle surface. Since no PS integrins are found at neuromuscular contacts it seems likely that the boutons can adhere to more muscle area because the muscle surfaces are more relaxed (allowing them to bend around the bouton) in the severely detached muscles of embryos lacking both PS integrins functions. Adhesion molecules expressed at Drosophila NMJs, like Fasciclin II, Fasciclin III or Connectin, are unlikely to mediate adhesion at the mature embryonic NMJ because they either fade during stage 16 or show no phenotype when mutated. Instead, mutant analysis reveals the existence of yet unknown embryonic adhesion factors downstream of mef2 regulation. Such factors might include laminin receptors that promote adhesion, or other receptors that displace the basement synaptic cell junction. Identification of mef2-dependent receptors might be aided by the use of lamA mutation as a sensitized background (Prokop, 1998).
The molecular mechanisms that achieve homeostatic stabilization of neural function remain largely unknown. To better understand how neural function is stabilized during development and throughout life, an electrophysiology-based forward genetic screen was used, and the function of more than 250 neuronally expressed genes was assessed for a role in the homeostatic modulation of synaptic transmission in Drosophila. This screen ruled out the involvement of numerous synaptic proteins and identified a critical function for dysbindin, a gene linked to schizophrenia in humans. dysbindin was found to be required presynaptically for the retrograde, homeostatic modulation of neurotransmission, and functions in a dose-dependent manner downstream or independently of calcium influx. Thus, dysbindin is essential for adaptive neural plasticity and may link altered homeostatic signaling with a complex neurological disease (Dickman, 2009).
At glutamatergic synapses of species ranging from Drosophila to human, disruption of postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptor function can be precisely offset by an increase in presynaptic neurotransmitter release to homeostatically maintain normal postsynaptic excitation. The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a glutamatergic synapse that is used as a model for this form of homeostatic signaling in the nervous system. Efficient homeostatic modulation of presynaptic release at the Drosophila NMJ can occur in ten min following bath application of philanthotoxin-433 (PhTx; a polyamine toxin present in the venom sac of the solitary digger wasp Philanthus triangulum), which persistently and specifically inhibits postsynaptic glutamate receptors (Dickman, 2009).
This study has systematically screened for mutations that block the rapid, PhTx-dependent induction of synaptic homeostasis. Mutations in 276 genes were screened electrophysiologically. For each mutant, an average value was calculated for the amplitude of both the spontaneous miniature excitatory junctional potential (mEJP) and evoked excitatory junctional potential (EJP) following treatment of the dissected neuromuscular preparation with PhTx for 10 min. 14 mutants were isolated with average EJP amplitudes more than two standard deviations smaller than the distribution mean. From these candidates, 7 mutants were identified that block synaptic homeostasis without an obvious effect on NMJ morphology or baseline synaptic transmission. It is concluded that the molecular mechanisms of synaptic homeostasis can be genetically separated from the mechanisms responsible for normal neuromuscular development and baseline synaptic transmission (Dickman, 2009).
A fraction of the mutants assayed (19.5%) are previously published genetic lesions. This allows ruling out of the involvement of numerous genes and associated biochemical processes. Mutations that disrupt RNA-interference/micro-RNA processing, retrograde trans-synaptic signaling, synaptic transmission, active zone assembly, synaptic vesicle endocytosis and mitochondria all showed reliable homeostatic compensation. Therefore, synaptic homeostasis is a robust phenomenon, unperturbed by a broad spectrum of synaptic mutations. In addition, significant homeostatic compensation in synaptojanin and endophilin mutants argues against the involvement of synaptic vesicle endocytosis and indicates that the size of the recycling synaptic vesicle pool is not a limiting factor for synaptic homeostasis. These data also emphasize the importance and specificity of those identified mutations that do block synaptic homeostasis. These include four ion channels, two of which are of unknown function, and two calcium-binding proteins of unknown function. Thus, homeostatic signaling at the NMJ may include previously unexplored mechanisms of synaptic modulation (Dickman, 2009).
One mutation that was identified with a specific defect in homeostatic compensation is a transposon insertion that resides in the Drosophila homologue of dysbindin (CG6856). The DTNBP1 (dysbindin) locus is linked with schizophrenia in humans. A transposon insertion was identified within the dysbindin locus (pBace01028, referred to as dysb1, that showed a complete absence of homeostatic compensation following application of PhTx. A similar effect was observed when dysb1 was placed in trans to a deficiency that uncovers the dysb locus, indicating that the dysb1 mutant was a strong loss of function or null mutation. No significant change in baseline synaptic transmission was observed in dysb1 mutant animals (0.5 mM extracellular calcium). Thus, under these recording conditions, this mutation disrupted synaptic homeostasis without altering baseline neurotransmission. As a control, synaptic homeostasis was normal in animals in which the pBace01028 transposon was precisely excised (Dickman, 2009).
The dysb gene is ubiquitously expressed in Drosophila embryos. Therefore, a dysbindin transgene was generated and expressed in the dysb1 mutant. Presynaptic expression of dysb fully restored homeostatic compensation in the dysb1 mutant background, whereas muscle-specific expression of dysb did not. Thus, Dysbindin is necessary presynaptically for the rapid induction of synaptic homeostasis (Dickman, 2009).
It was next asked whether Dysbindin is also required for the sustained expression of synaptic homeostasis. Double mutant animals were generated harboring both the dysb1 mutation and a mutation in a gene encoding a postsynaptic glutamate receptor (GluRIIA). GluRIIA mutant animals normally show robust homeostatic compensation. However, homeostatic compensation was blocked in GluRIIA; dysb1 double mutant animals. Thus, dysbindin was also necessary for the sustained expression of synaptic homeostasis over several days of larval development (Dickman, 2009).
Synapse morphology was qualitatively normal in dysb mutants including both the shape of the presynaptic nerve terminal and the levels, localization and organization of synaptic markers including futsch-positive microtubules, synapsin and synaptotagmin. Bouton number and active zone density are also normal in dysb mutants. Thus, the disruption of synaptic homeostasis in dysb1 mutants is not a secondary consequence of altered or impaired NMJ development (Dickman, 2009).
In the vertebrate nervous system, Dysbindin is associated with synaptic vesicles. The localization was examined of a Venus-tagged dysb transgene (ven-dysb) that rescues the dysb1 mutant. Ven-Dysb showed extensive overlap with synaptic vesicle associated proteins when expressed in neurons. Thus, Dysbindin functions presynaptically, potentially at or near the synaptic vesicle pool (Dickman, 2009).
To further define the function of Dysbindin, baseline synaptic transmission in the dysb mutant was investigated in greater detail. At 0.5 mM extracellular calcium, synaptic transmission in dysb1 mutant animals was indistinguishable from wild type. However, when extracellular calcium was reduced, baseline synaptic transmission was significantly impaired in dysb compared to wild type and this defect was rescued by presynaptic expression of dysb. Thus, there is an alteration of the calcium dependence of synaptic transmission in the dysb mutant. Indeed, at reduced extracellular calcium, both paired-pulse facilitation and facilitation that occurs during a prolonged stimulus train were increased in dysb mutants (Dickman, 2009).
In vertebrates, the levels of dysb expression correlate with parallel changes in extracellular glutamate concentration. Therefore, whether dysb overexpression might increase presynaptic release was tested. In wild-type animals overexpressing dysb in neurons, synaptic transmission is normal at low extracellular calcium (0.2 and 0.3 mM Ca2+) but was enhanced at relatively higher extracellular calcium (0.5 mM Ca2+). The complementary effects of dysb loss-of-function and overexpression confirm that Dysbindin has an important influence on calcium-dependent vesicle release (Dickman, 2009).
The presynaptic CaV2.1 calcium channel, encoded by cacophony (cac), is required for synaptic vesicle release at the Drosophila NMJ. cac mutations decrease presynaptic calcium influx and also block synaptic homeostasis. Genetic interaction between dysb and cac was tested during synaptic homeostasis. Because homozygous cac and dysb mutations individually block synaptic homeostasis, analysis of double mutant combinations would not be informative. An analysis of heterozygous mutant combinations and gene overexpression were examined. Synaptic homeostasis was suppressed by a heterozygous mutation in cac. However, this suppression was not enhanced by the presence of a heterozygous mutation in dysb. In addition, neuronal overexpression of cac did not restore homeostatic compensation in dysb mutant animals and the enhancement of presynaptic release caused by neuronal dysb overexpression still occurs in a heterozygous cac mutant background. Thus, Dysbindin may function downstream or independently of Cac during synaptic homeostasis (Dickman, 2009).
To further explore the relationship between Dysbindin and Cac, it was asked whether dysb mutations might directly influence presynaptic calcium influx. The spatially averaged calcium signal in dysb1 was indistinguishable from wild type, indicating no difference in presynaptic calcium influx. Thus, Dysbindin appears to function downstream or independently of calcium influx to control synaptic homeostasis (Dickman, 2009).
Through a systematic electrophysiological analysis of more than 250 mutants this study could rule out the involvement of numerous synaptic proteins and biochemical processes in the mechanisms of synaptic homeostasis and demonstrate that this phenomenon is separable from the molecular mechanisms that specify structural and functional synapse development. Dysbindin is therefore identified as an essential presynaptic component within a homeostatic signaling system that regulates and stabilizes synaptic efficacy. Dysbindin functions downstream or independently of the presynaptic CaV2.1 calcium channel in the mechanisms of synaptic homeostasis (Dickman, 2009).
Emerging lines of evidence suggest that glutamate hypofunction could be related to the etiology of schizophrenia. Likewise, reduced levels of dysbindin expression were associated with schizophrenia. The sandy mouse, which lacks Dysbindin, has a decreased rate of vesicle release (~30% decrease), a correlated decrease in vesicle pool size and an increased thickness of the postsynaptic density. This study confirms a modest, facilitatory function for Dysbindin during baseline transmission. However, numerous mutations with similar or more severe defects in baseline transmission show normal synaptic homeostasis. By contrast, loss of Dysbindin completely blocks the adaptive, homeostatic modulation of vesicle release, suggesting that the potential contribution of dysbindin mutations to schizophrenia may be derived from altered homeostatic plasticity as opposed to decreased baseline glutamatergic transmission (Dickman, 2009).
In Drosophila, the secreted signaling molecule Jelly Belly (Jeb) activates anaplastic lymphoma kinase (Alk), a receptor tyrosine kinase, in multiple developmental and adult contexts. Jeb and Alk are highly enriched at Drosophila synapses within the CNS neuropil and neuromuscular junction (NMJ), and a conserved intercellular signaling function was been postulated. At the embryonic and larval NMJ, Jeb is localized in the motor neuron presynaptic terminal whereas Alk is concentrated in the muscle postsynaptic domain surrounding boutons, consistent with anterograde trans-synaptic signaling. This study shows that neurotransmission is regulated by Jeb secretion by functional inhibition of Jeb-Alk signaling. Jeb is a novel negative regulator of neuromuscular transmission. Reduction or inhibition of Alk function results in enhanced synaptic transmission. Activation of Alk conversely inhibits synaptic transmission. Restoration of wild-type postsynaptic Alk expression in Alk partial loss-of-function mutants rescues NMJ transmission phenotypes and confirms that postsynaptic Alk regulates NMJ transmission. The effects of impaired Alk signaling on neurotransmission are observed in the absence of associated changes in NMJ structure. Complete removal of Jeb in motor neurons, however, disrupts both presynaptic bouton architecture and postsynaptic differentiation. Nonphysiologic activation of Alk signaling also negatively regulates NMJ growth. Activation of Jeb-Alk signaling triggers the Ras-MAP kinase cascade in both pre- and postsynaptic compartments. These novel roles for Jeb-Alk signaling in the modulation of synaptic function and structure have potential implications for recently reported Alk functions in human addiction, retention of spatial memory, cognitive dysfunction in neurofibromatosis, and pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Rohrbough, 2012).
The results support an anterograde signaling model in which presynaptically secreted Jeb
activates postsynaptic Alk. The data to support this hypothesis derives from multiple tests. First, immunolabeling shows Jeb is concentrated within presynaptic boutons, while Alk is present in the surrounding postsynaptic subsynaptic reticulum (SSR) (Rohrbough, 2011). Second, targeted
postsynaptic Alk expression in Alk LOF mutants is sufficient to rescue synaptic transmission
defects, a strong demonstration that Alk is required in the postsynaptic muscle to regulate
neurotransmission. Third, post-synaptic inhibtion of Alk by tissue specific RNAi results in 2-
fold increased accumulation of perisynaptic Jeb. Fourth, the MARCM clonal approach
demonstrates Jeb may be required within presynaptic motor neurons to regulate postsynaptic
molecular assembly. Fifth, elevated presynaptic Jeb expression activates postsynaptic
Ras/MAPK/ERK activation, while inhibition of postsynaptic Alk reduces Ras/MAPK/ERK
activitation (Rohrbough, 2012).
In structurally normal NMJs, strong effects on neurotransmission were found as a
consequence of perturbations in Jeb-Alk signaling. The clearest, most consistent results derive
from techniques that activate or inhibit Jeb-Alk signaling postsynaptically. Postsynaptic
hyperactivation of Alk weakens NMJ synaptic transmission. This functional phenotype
parallels the negative regulation of synaptic growth by postsynaptic Alk activation. Consistent
with the inhibitory effect of Alk activation on neurotransmission, enhanced
neurotransmission was observed as a consequence of muscle specific reductions in Alk levels by transgenic RNAi. Additional confirmation for Alk-dependent inhibition of neurotransmission is
provided by analysis of a hypomorphic temperature sensitive allele of Alk. Partial loss of Alk
function results in strongly increased NMJ neurotransmission. The implication is that
Alk activity limits or negatively regulates synaptic strength. It was also shown that muscle-specific Alk expression in the strongest alkts/alkf01491 partial loss of function genotype rescues reduced neurotransmission to near wild-type levels, a conclusive demonstration that postsynaptic Alk function negatively regulates the strength of NMJ neurotransmission. This function is novel: Jeb-Alk transynaptic signaling is the only known negative regulator of synaptic transmission (Rohrbough, 2012).
Presynaptic manipulation of Jeb yields less strong though still consistent results.
Transmission is uneffected by increased pan-neuronal Jeb expression, though this activates
Ras/MAPK/ERK both centrally and presynaptically at the NMJ and, to a lesser degree, within
the postsynaptic muscle. Motor neuron electrical activity activates neuronal Ras/MAPK/ERK
signaling, and this presynaptic Ras/MAPK/ERK activation is positively linked to both structural
and functional NMJ synaptic remodeling. Motor neuron specific over
expression of Jeb does produce a modest but statistically significant reduction in neuromuscular
transmission. Ectopic expression of Jeb in muscle results in substantial inhibiton of
neuromuscular transmission. One hypothesis that may account for the diffence between panneuronal
and motor neuron or muscle specific manipulation of Jeb-Alk signalling is that the
effects of manipulating pan-neuronal Jeb represent a composite of central and peripheral effects
on the motor neuron. In first instar larvae it was found that both jeb and alk mutants display impaired central output to motor neurons most consistent with a central synaptic defect (Rohrbough, 2011). The integrated physiologic function subserved by Jeb-Alk signaling in the NMJ, which has yet to be determined, will provide the essential context for interpretting these results (Rohrbough, 2012).
The novel inhibitory role of Jeb-Alk signaling in NMJ transmission implies that it is part of a
transynaptic regulatory network that integrates neuronal activity and responses with other
homeostatic mechanisms. This study provides indirect evidence that Jeb secretion is regulated. The
physiologic regulation of Jeb secretion is a critical missing component of understanding how
Jeb-Alk signaling fits into the regulation of synaptic plasticity.
Jeb-Alk signaling regulates postembryonic NMJ synaptic growth and patterning
Jeb-Alk signaling is not required for embryonic NMJ synaptogenesis or differentiation,
although jeb and alk null mutants display impaired locomotion and reduced NMJ transmission
(Rohrbough and Broadie 2011). At later developmental stages, removing Jeb in motor neurons
strongly disrupts late larval NMJ synaptic terminal architecture and bouton morphology.
Postsynaptic Dlg scaffolding and GluR clustering are strongly perturbed in association with jeb
mutant terminals. The mosaic analysis supports a cell-autonomous, anterograde signaling
function for Jeb. One mechanistic hypothesis is that Jeb-Alk nerve-to-muscle signaling regulates
NMJ morphogenesis by recruiting or regulating cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). In the
developing adult visual system, anterograde Jeb-Alk signaling induces the expression of postsynaptic
adhesion molecules Dumbfounded/Kirre, Roughest/IrreC and Flamingo to shape the
optic neuropil target environment. At the larval NMJ, adhesion
molecules such as fasciclins and integrins regulate activity-dependent synaptic growth and
structural remodeling. The current results
imply that Jeb-Alk signaling either directly regulates Dlg localization or indirectly drives Dlg-dependent postsynaptic differentiation. Dlg has demonstrated roles in NMJ morphogenesis and
GluR expression and field regulation, and directly binds and regulates fasciclin II and βPS integrin. Future work will test the hypothesis that Jeb-Alk signaling organizes or regulates
adhesion receptors and postsynaptic scaffolding to control bouton differentiation and shape
functional synaptic architecture (Rohrbough, 2012).
In other systems, Jeb-Alk signaling has been studied primarily at the level of behavior.
In C. elegans, the Jeb homolog Hen-1 was identified in a forward genetic behavioral screen for
impaired ability to integrate conflicting sensory input (Ishihara, 2002). The Hen-1
phenotype is non-developmental and can be rescued only by adult Hen-1 expression. There is no
uniquely identified mammalian Jeb/Hen-1 homolog, but ALK is
expressed in the mammalian nervous system during development and at maturity. Alk is expressed in the mouse hippocampus and Alk loss of function enhances behavioral performance in tests dependent on hippocampal function. Similarly,
Drosophila learning has shown a dependence on the Ras/MAPK/ERK cascade, which is
activated by Jeb-Alk signaling and is probably inhibited by Drosophila neurofibromin (dNf1). Genetic or pharmacologic inhibtion of Jeb-Alk signaling enhances
associative learning while increased Jeb-Alk signaling or loss of dNf1 impairs learning.
Inhibition of Alk rescues dNf1 mutant learning deficits. These
studies suggest that the Jeb-Alk trans-synaptic pathway acts in concert with other, negative
regulators of Ras/MAPK/ERK signaling to balance developmental and learning-related synaptic
structural and functional changes. Strikingly, a whole-genome association study recently
identified human ALK as one of a small number of genes associated with sporadic amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis (ALS), a devistating neurodegerative disease of central motor units. If Alk has a conserved inhibitory role in synaptic physiological regulation, hypofunctional human Alk variants may result in augmented motor unit activity and contribute to excitotoxicity and progressive motor unit degeneration in ALS. Pharmacologic activation of Alk has already been hypothesized to have therapeutic benefit in treating ALS. Further insight from future studies should be gained into the mechanism by which the Jeb-Alk signaling pathway regulates synaptic adaptivity in both normal and pathological states (Rohrbough, 2012).
Myosin VI, encoded by jaguar (jar) in Drosophila, is a unique member of the myosin superfamily of actin-based motor proteins. Myosin VI is the only myosin known to move towards the minus or pointed ends of actin filaments. Although Myosin VI has been implicated in numerous cellular processes as both an anchor and a transporter, little is known about the role of Myosin VI in the nervous system. Previous studies recovered jar in a screen for genes that modify neuromuscular junction (NMJ) development and this study reports on the genetic analysis of Myosin VI in synaptic development and function using loss of function jar alleles. The experiments on Drosophila third instar larvae revealed decreased locomotor activity, a decrease in NMJ length, a reduction in synaptic bouton number, and altered synaptic vesicle localization in jar mutants. Furthermore, studies of synaptic transmission revealed alterations in both basal synaptic transmission and short-term plasticity at the jar mutant neuromuscular synapse. Altogether these findings indicate that Myosin VI is important for proper synaptic function and morphology. Myosin VI may be functioning as an anchor to tether vesicles to the bouton periphery and, thereby, participating in the regulation of synaptic vesicle mobilization during synaptic transmission (Kisiel, 2011).
Although Myosin VI function in the vesicle cycle has been implicated in mammalian cells, this report provides the first evidence that Myosin VI is important for maintaining normal peripheral vesicle localization at the bouton. In Drosophila, there are four types of boutons, which are the sites of neurotransmitter release at the NMJ, and they differ in their morphological and chemical properties. Of interest for this study were the largest synaptic boutons found at type I axon terminals, which are present at all NMJs of mature larvae. Visualization of synaptotagmin staining using confocal imaging revealed a mislocalization of synaptic vesicles in jar mutant boutons. An increasing number of jar mutant boutons, corresponding to the severity of Myosin VI loss of function, were found to exhibit diffuse staining over the entire bouton area as opposed to the doughnut-shaped staining pattern present in control boutons. Bouton centre occupancy has previously been observed at Drosophila NMJs of larvae lacking synapsin, a phosphoprotein that reversibly associates with vesicles, using FM1-43 loading under low frequencies. EM analysis confirmed that in synapsin knockouts there was a spread of vesicles into the bouton centre, accompanied by a reduction in the size of the reserve pool. Thus, synapsin is thought to function in maintaining the peripheral distribution of vesicles in Ib boutons. Likewise, the unexpected diffuse synaptotagmin staining of jar mutant boutons suggests Myosin VI participates in restricting vesicles to the bouton periphery. It is possible that Myosin VI is functioning as a regulator of the actin cytoskeleton at the synapse. Mutant studies have revealed that the presynaptic actin cytoskeleton is required for proper synaptic morphogenesis. Myosin VI has already been shown to function in regulating the actin cytoskeleton during the process of spermatid individualization, by acting either as a structural cross-linker or as an anchor at the front edge of the actin cone, and during nuclear divisions in the syncytial blastoderm. However, live imaging of actin dynamics at the synaptic boutons revealed no major defects in the actin cytoskeleton at jar loss of function mutant nerve terminals (Kisiel, 2011).
To assess whether the morphological defects in vesicle localization observed at jar mutant synapses impact synaptic transmission, electrophysiological assays with different stimulation paradigms were used to recruit vesicles from different functional pools. The data add to the knowledge of this protein's physiological role at synapses. Myosin VI mutant mouse hippocampal neurons exhibit defects in the internalization of the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid-type glutamate receptor, responsible for fast glutamatergic transmission, suggesting Myosin VI normally plays a role in AMPAR endocytosis. In addition, basal synaptic transmission is reduced in Myosin VI deficient mouse hippocampal slices compared to wild-type controls. Electrophysiological experiments also indicate that Myosin VI mediates glutamate release induced by brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which is known to modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity in the mammalian central and peripheral nervous system (Kisiel, 2011).
This study is the first to show that Myosin VI's role in synaptic transmission involves mobilization of vesicles from different functional pools, indicating that Myosin VI is important for synaptic plasticity. At the Drosophila NMJ, three pools of vesicles with differential release properties have been identified using FM1-43 staining loaded by various stimulation protocols. The immediately releasable pool (IRP), representing approximately 1% of all vesicles at the NMJ, consists of vesicles docked and primed at active zones for immediate release and experiences rapid depletion within a few stimuli. The readily releasable pool (RRP), making up 14% to 19% of all vesicles at the NMJ, is mobilized by moderate stimulation of ≤3 Hz and maintains exo/endocytosis at these stimulation frequencies. The reserve pool (RP) represents the vast majority of vesicles, 80% to 90%, and is mobilized upon depletion of the RRP. Recruitment from the RP occurs with high frequency stimulation of ≥10 Hz. Spontaneous release was reduced in the most severe jar loss of function mutants. Evoked response at 1 Hz stimulation was also reduced in the jar maternal null mutant. Although less severe jar mutants exhibited a significant decrease in bouton number, they did not experience an accompanying reduction in evoked potential amplitude at low frequency stimulation, suggesting that other homeostatic mechanisms are important for maintaining synaptic strength. The impaired synaptic response in the jar maternal null mutant may be due to a reduction in the probability of RRP vesicle release or in RRP size. If Myosin VI functions to anchor synaptic vesicles, it may act on the RRP to ensure vesicles are localized in manner that makes them readily available for release. Thus, in jar maternal null mutants the reduction in EJP amplitude may occur because a significant number of vesicles were displaced from areas of higher probability release. Alternately, RRP pool size may be reduced at jar mutant synapses (Kisiel, 2011).
Different synaptic vesicle pool properties, such as rate of recruitment of the RP in response to high frequency stimuli, may translate to changes in short-term synaptic plasticity. The increase in EJP amplitude observed at 10 Hz stimulation in 1 mM Ca2+ saline may be attributable to enhanced mobilization of the RP for jar322/Df(3R)crb87-5 NMJs. Filamentous actin has been implicated in RP mobilization as cytochalasin D, an inhibitor of actin polymerization, has been shown to reduce RP dynamics. This suggests translocation from the RP to the RRP may be mediated by an actin-based myosin motor protein. If Myosin VI functions as a synaptic vesicle tether to regulate recruitment from the RP pool, RP vesicles would be more readily mobilized and transitioned into the RRP upon high frequency stimulation in jar loss of function mutants. Consistent with the idea that RP vesicles were more rapidly incorporated into the RRP, a greater initial depression is observed at jar322/Df(3R)crb87-5 mutant synapses during high frequency stimulation in 10 mM Ca2+ saline corresponding to the depletion of vesicles at high calcium concentrations. Taken together, the data suggest that Myosin VI mediates synaptic transmission and short-term plasticity by regulating the mobilization of synaptic vesicles from different functional pools. In mammalian cells, Myosin VI has been implicated as a mediator of vesicle endocyctosis and has been shown to transport uncoated vesicles through the actin-rich periphery to the early endosome. The current experiments, however, indicate that endocytosis is not likely affected at jar mutant synapses. Typically, endocytotic mutants are unable to maintain synaptic transmission in response to high frequency stimulation, whereas the Myosin VI loss of function mutants exhibited enhanced EJP amplitude observed at 10 Hz stimulation in 1 mM Ca2+ saline. Additional experiments are required to confirm that Myosin VI is functioning as a vesicle tether. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching analysis can be used to examine the effect of Myosin VI on synaptic vesicle mobility. If Myosin VI is functioning as a vesicle tether, synaptic vesicle mobility is expected to be increased in jar mutants compared to controls (Kisiel, 2011).
In summary, the present work shows that Myosin VI is important for proper synaptic morphology and physiology at the Drosophila NMJ. Myosin VI function in peripheral vesicle localization at the bouton may underlie its contribution to basal synaptic transmission and expression of synaptic plasticity. Future work will address the mechanism by which Myosin VI performs its roles at the synapse, whether as a vesicle tether or by some other involvement in vesicle trafficking (Kisiel, 2011).
The functions of sleep remain elusive, but a strong link exists between sleep need and neuronal plasticity. This study tested the hypothesis that plastic processes during wake lead to a net increase in synaptic strength and sleep is necessary for synaptic renormalization. In three Drosophila neuronal circuits it was found that synapse size or number increases after a few hours of wake and decreases only if flies are allowed to sleep. A richer wake experience resulted in both larger synaptic growth and greater sleep need. Finally, it was demonstrated that the gene Fmr1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) plays an important role in sleep-dependent synaptic renormalization (Bushey, 2011).
Sleep is present in every species that has been carefully studied, including Drosophila, but its functions remain elusive. Increasing evidence points to a link between sleep need and neuronal plasticity. A recent hypothesis suggests that a consequence of staying awake is a progressive increase in synaptic strength, as the awake brain learns and adapts to an ever-changing environment mostly through synaptic potentiation. However, such increase would soon become unsustainable, because stronger synapses consume more energy, occupy more space, require more supplies, and cannot be further potentiated, saturating the ability to learn. Thus, according to the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, sleep may serve an essential function by promoting a homeostatic reduction in synaptic strength down to sustainable levels. Also, the hypothesis predicts that the more one learns and adapts (i.e., the more intense is the wake experience), the more one needs to sleep. Findings in rodents are consistent with this hypothesis. For instance, molecular and electrophysiological markers of synaptic strength are higher after wake and lower after sleep. Moreover, presynaptic terminals of hypocretin neurons in zebrafish larvae undergo both circadian and sleep-wake-dependent structural changes, the latter consistent with sleep-dependent down-regulation. Finally, in the fly brain, overall levels of synaptic proteins increase after wake and decrease after sleep (Gilestro, 2009), and synaptic structural changes have been described after very long sleep deprivation (Donlea, 2009). These results suggest that a role for sleep in synaptic homeostasis may hold in phylogenetically distant species and may thus be of general importance (Bushey, 2011).
The evidence in support of the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis is mainly correlative, and thus it is important to seek direct proof that sleep is necessary for synaptic renormalization and to do so at the level of individual synapses. Moreover, the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis predicts that behavioral paradigms that enhance wake-related plasticity in specific neural circuits should increase synaptic strength in those circuits as well as sleep need, but this prediction has never been tested. Finally, the cellular mechanisms that underlie synaptic and sleep changes remain unexplored. This study exploited the power of Drosophila genetics, combined with confocal microscopy and behavioral analysis, to address these questions (Bushey, 2011).
Changes in synaptic strength are often associated with changes in synaptic structure, including synapse number and size, although the link between structural and functional plasticity is complex. In mammals, the diameter and length of synaptic spines correlate with the size of the postsynaptic density and with the magnitude of electric signals transmitted to the dendritic shaft. Moreover, the induction of synaptic potentiation leads to growth of synapses and spines, whereas synaptic depression causes synapses and spines to retract or shrink. Similarly, in Drosophila, synaptic morphology at the neuromuscular junction changes depending on experience, and these changes correlate with synaptic strength. Previous in vivo experiments in mammals and flies measured overall changes in electrophysiological and molecular markers of synaptic strength, without cellular resolution, and without direct evidence for morphological changes in synaptic terminals. Three specific cell populations in the fly brain were selected, and it was asked whether sleep and wake affect synaptic density and size (Bushey, 2011).
The first cell group studied included the small ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), a subset of circadian oscillator neurons that are part of the wake promoting system and express the neuropeptide pigment dispersing factor (PDF). To visualize changes in presynaptic morphology, a fusion protein between synaptotagmin and enhanced GFP (syt-eGFP) was expressed, whose protein product colocalizes with native synaptic vesicles. PDF expression was also measured, because the latter is another marker of presynaptic boutons in small LNvs. First, adult females (7 days old) collected either during the light period were tested after 7 hours of mainly (>75%) spontaneous wake or during the dark period after 7 hours of mostly sleep (>80%) or sleep deprivation (>90%). Syt-eGFP and PDF staining were both higher in the presynaptic region of sleep-deprived and spontaneously awake flies relative to sleeping flies, whereas no differences were found in the axonal processes extending from the cell bodies to the presynaptic region, suggesting that the changes are independent of circadian time and specific to the presynaptic terminal. Males were then tested because they have less consolidated wake during the day than females. Flies were only tested at night, after sleep or sleep deprivation. Sleep-deprived 3- and 7-day-old males consistently showed higher presynaptic syt-eGFP and PDF staining than sleeping flies. In contrast, 1-day-old flies showed low syt-eGFP and PDF staining after both sleep and sleep deprivation. The lack of PDF staining in very young flies suggests that these neurons are still inactive soon after eclosure. Moreover, because PDF promotes arousal, low PDF staining is consistent with flies being predominantly asleep after eclosure, even if mechanical stimulation was used to try to keep them awake, consistent with high sleep need and elevated arousal threshold in newborn mammals. Syt-eGFP staining did not change in newly eclosed flies, whose PDF levels were very low. Syt-eGFP and PDF expression were also measured in Per01 flies carrying a null mutation of the clock gene Period. Because Per01 mutants have no spontaneous consolidated sleep, flies were collected immediately after 7 hours of sleep deprivation or after 5 additional hours of either recovery sleep or sleep deprivation. Overall, syt-eGFP and PDF staining in presynaptic terminals was reduced in Per01 mutants relative to wild-type (WT) flies but was still high after both 7 and 12 hours of sleep deprivation and low after recovery sleep (Bushey, 2011).
The second cell group analyzed included γ neurons of the mushroom bodies, because they can be targeted by mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) to visualize single cells, show a relatively simple morphology, and undergo activity-dependent pruning. Moreover, the mushroom bodies are involved in sleep regulation, and mutations altering cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase signaling or Fmr1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) expression in these brain regions affect both sleep need and experience-dependent structural plasticity . Flies were collected at night after 7 hours of sleep or sleep deprivation, and dissected brains were immunostained for GFP-tagged CD8 to visualize neuronal membranes. It was found that the axonal tips were larger after sleep deprivation than after sleep, consistent with an increase in volume of presynaptic terminals. To confirm this result, fly stocks were generated with γ MARCM clones expressing syt-eGFP, and flies were collected after 7 hours of mostly spontaneous wake, or during the dark period after 7 hours of mostly sleep or sleep deprivation. As expected, syt-eGFP tended to accumulate in puncta along lightly stained processes, in contrast to the diffuse CD8-GFP staining. Syt-eGFP puncta were larger in sleep deprived and spontaneously awake flies relative to sleeping flies (Bushey, 2011).
Next, whether postsynaptic morphological changes also occur as a function of sleep and wake was tested. To do so, focus was placed on the first giant tangential neuron of the lobula plate vertical system (VS). This cell (VS1) is unambiguously recognizable, and its stereotyped dendritic tree shows small actin-enriched protrusions morphologically and functionally similar to mammalian dendritic spines. Flies were compared that were spontaneously awake during the day or that slept or were sleep deprived during the first 7 hours of the night. Single VS1 spines were visualized using an antibody against actin-GFP and counted in one easily identifiable branch. The total number of spines was similar in spontaneously awake and sleeping flies but increased after sleep deprivation relative to both conditions, mainly because of an increase in stubby spines (which were the majority of scored spines). The number of mushroom spines did not change. The increase in spine number after sleep loss was associated with increased branching and lengthening of the dendritic tree, whereas spine density (number of spines divided by branch length) was similar in all conditions. Because sleep-deprived female flies had been mostly awake during the previous light period, this suggests that these postsynaptic changes may need sustained periods of wake. Another possibility, not mutually exclusive, is that changes in VS1 spines require a wake condition richer than that experienced by flies spontaneously awake alone inside small glass tubes. Indeed, sleep-deprived flies were kept awake using vibratory stimuli, resulting in the flies often falling from the top to the bottom of the tubes. Because visually driven responses in VS neurons are stronger during flight than during nonflight, it is possible that these cells were activated by the fall (Bushey, 2011).
To test whether a rich wake experience that engages the VS circuit is sufficient to affect VS1 synaptic morphology, up to 100 flies were housed inside a large lighted chamber ('fly mall') for an entire light period (12 hours). In the mall, flies could fly ad libitum, explore, and interact with each other. Flies were collected immediately after the mall experience and compared with flies that, as usual, had remained awake during the day in single tubes. The enriched experience in the mall had profound morphological effects on the VS1 dendritic tree: Total branch length increased because of the addition of more branches with spines (mainly stubby), resulting in an overall increase in spine number (Bushey, 2011).
Once experience-dependent synaptic changes have occurred, are they stable? If not, is sleep necessary to bring synaptic morphology back to pre-enrichment levels? To answer these questions, two other groups of flies were moved back to single tubes after 12 hours of mall experience; one group was allowed to sleep for 7 hours, whereas the other was kept awake as before using mechanical stimuli. In flies that were sleep-deprived after enrichment, branch length, branch points, and spine number were at levels similar to those seen in flies collected immediately after enrichment. In contrast, in flies that were allowed to sleep after the mall experience, all morphological parameters reverted to the levels observed in awake flies kept in single tubes. Moreover, spine density was negatively correlated with the amount of sleep during the last 7 hours, as well as with the maximal duration of sleep bouts. In another experiment, flies were housed in the mall for 12 hours during the day and then moved back to single tubes to record their sleep. During the 24 hours after the enrichment, flies slept more, both during the day and at. Finally, in the last experiment, flies were housed in the mall for 12 hours during the day, moved back to single tubes and sleep deprived all night (12 hours), and then either collected immediately, allowed to sleep for 6 hours, or kept awake for 6 more hours. Consistent with the previous experiments, decreases in all morphological parameters were seen only in flies that could sleep, and spine density was negatively correlated with the amount of sleep during the last 6 hours, as well as with mean and maximal duration of sleep bouts (Bushey, 2011).
Previous experiments suggest that Fmr1 could mediate at least some of the effects of sleep/wake on synapses. Fmr1 protein product (FMRP) is present in dendritic spines, and loss of FMRP in flies is associated with overgrown dendritic trees, larger synaptic boutons, and defects in developmental and activity-dependent pruning. Notably, Fmr1 overexpression results in the opposite phenotype, with dendritic and axonal underbranching and loss of synapse differentiation. Moreover, Fmr1 expression is reduced by sensory deprivation in flies and increased by sensory stimulation and enrichment in mammals (Bushey, 2011).
It was recently shown that FMRP levels increase in the adult fly brain during wake relative to sleep, independent of time of day or light, suggesting that waking experience is sufficient to affect Fmr1 expression even after the end of development. It has also been shown that Fmr1 overexpression in either the whole brain or in the mushroom bodies is associated with an ~30% decrease in sleep duration, and it is hypothesized that this reduced need for sleep occurs because chronically high Fmr1 levels may allow synaptic pruning to occur at all times, independent of sleep. If so, Fmr1 overexpressing (OE) flies should fail to show increased spine density after prolonged wake. Thus Fmr1 was overexpressed specifically in the vertical and horizontal system of the lobula plate. OE flies were collected at night after 7 hours of either sleep or sleep deprivation and were compared to corresponding sleeping and sleep-deprived WT controls. As expected, Fmr1 expression was concentrated in granules along the VS1 dendritic tree, and overall Fmr1 levels were higher in sleeping and sleep-deprived OE flies than in their corresponding controls, due to larger Fmr1 granules in OE flies. Crucially, in contrast to WT controls, OE flies showed no increase in either spine number, branch length, or branch points after sleep deprivation relative to sleep; all these parameters were similar between the two experimental groups, and their levels were close to those observed in WT flies after sleep. Finally, OE flies slept less than their WT controls during baseline and showed a reduced sleep rebound after 12 hours of sleep deprivation at night. Thus, it seems that Fmr1 overexpression was sufficient to completely abolish the wake-dependent increase in VS1 spine number, whereas the effects on sleep were small. The latter result is not surprising, because sleep need presumably results from the overall amount of synaptic plasticity occurring during wake in many brain areas, whereas Fmr1 overexpression was restricted to a few VS neurons (Bushey, 2011).
Sleep is perhaps the only major behavior still in search of a function. The results of this study support the hypothesis that plastic processes during wake lead to a net increase in synaptic strength in many brain circuits and that sleep is required for synaptic renormalization. A wake-related increase in synapse number and strength, if unopposed, would lead to a progressive increase in energy expenditure and saturation of learning. A sleep-dependent synaptic homeostasis may explain why sleep is required to maintain cognitive performance. How sleep would bring about a net decrease in synaptic strength remains unknown, but in mammals, potential mechanisms favoring synaptic depression during non-rapid eye movement sleep may require the repeated sequences of depolarization/synchronous firing and hyperpolarization/silence at ~1Hz observed in corticothalamic cells, as well as the low levels of neuromodulators such as noradrenaline and of plasticity-related molecules such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor. To what extent such mechanisms may also apply to flies remains to be determined (Bushey, 2011).
Synapse loss correlates with cognitive decline in aging and most neurological pathologies. Sensory perception changes often represent subtle dysfunctions that precede the onset of a neurodegenerative disease. However, a cause-effect relationship between synapse loss and sensory perception deficits is difficult to prove and quantify due to functional and structural adaptation of neural systems. This study modified a PI3K/AKT/GSK3 signaling pathway to reduce the number of synapses--without affecting the number of cells--in five subsets of local interneurons of the Drosophila olfactory glomeruli and measured the behavioral effects on olfactory perception. The neuron subsets were chosen under the criteria of GABA or ChAT expression. The reduction of one subset of synapses, mostly inhibitory, converted the responses to all odorants and concentrations tested as repulsive, while the reduction of another subset, mostly excitatory, led to a shift toward attraction. However, the simultaneous reduction of both synapse subsets restored normal perception. One group of local interneurons proved unaffected by the induced synapse loss in the perception of some odorants, indicating a functional specialization of these cells. Using genetic tools for space and temporal control of synapse number decrease, it was shown that the perception effects are specific to the local interneurons, rather than the mushroom bodies, and are not based on major structural changes elicited during development. These findings demonstrate that synapse loss causes sensory perception changes and suggest that normal perception is based on a balance between excitation and inhibition (Acebes, 2011).
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