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Zygotically transcribed genes
Genes coding for adherens junction proteins
Genes coding for septate junction proteins
Analysis has been carried out on the pattern and development of cellular junctions in the different tissues of the Drosophila embryo from the blastoderm stage until hatching. The cellular junctions found include: gap junctions, two types of septate junctions, and several types of cell-cell and cell-substrate adherens junctions. During early and mid embryogenesis (stages 4 to 13) only spot adherens junctions, gap junctions, and zonulae adherentes (circumferential adherens junctions) prevail. Scattered spot adherens junctions are already formed at the blastoderm stage. During and shortly after gastrulation, spot adherens junctions become concentrated at the apical pole and fuse into continuous zonulae adherentes in the posterior endoderm and the ectoderm. In addition to the zonulae adherentes, ectodermally derived epithelia possess scattered gap junctions and form pleated septate junctions and hemiadherens junctions during late embryogenesis (stages 14 to 17). Hemiadherens junctions (HAJ) are junctions connecting muscles directly to epidermal cells and are characterized either by the presence of an intervening extracellular electron-dense material (connecting HAJ) or by the presence of an intervening tendon (tendon HAJ) (Tepass, 1994 and Prokop, 1998).
Mesenchymal tissues (i.e., all nonepithelial tissues of the embryo, including the neural primordium and, transiently, the mesoderm and endoderm) possess both spot adherens junctions and gap junctions at a low frequency. Initially, the midgut epithelium does not establish a junctional complex and possesses only gap junctions and spot adherens junctions. Only late in development does a circumferential smooth septate junction develop; zonulae adherentes are missing. The various derivatives of the mesoderm express spot adherens junctions, hemiadherens junctions, and gap junctions, but never zonulae adherentes or septate junctions. After organogenesis, several different types of tissue-specific adherens junctions are formed, among them connecting hemiadherens junctions (between gut epithelium and visceral muscle and early during the formation of the muscle tendon junction); muscle tendon junctions (between somatic muscle and tendon cells); fasciae adherentes (between the cells of both the visceral muscle and the dorsal vessel), and autocellular nephrocyte junctions (in nephrocytes). Interesting exceptions to the general pattern of junctional development are provided by the outer epithelial layer of the proventriculus and the Malpighian tubules. Both tissues develop as typical ectodermal epithelia and possess zonulae adherentes. During late embryogenesis, both epithelia lose the zonulae adherentes and form smooth rather than pleated septate junctions, thereby expressing a junctional complex similar to that of the endodermally derived midgut epithelium (Tepass, 1994).
The distribution of proteins in the apico-lateral cell junctions has been examined in Drosophila imaginal discs. Antibodies to phosphotyrosine (PY), Armadillo (Arm) and Drosophila E-cadherin (DE-cad) as well as FITC phalloidin (which marks filamentous actin) labels the site of the adherens junction, whereas antibodies to Discs large (Dlg), Fasciclin 3 (Fas3) and Coracle (Cor) label the more basal septate junction. The junctional proteins labeled by these antibodies undergo specific changes in distribution during the cell cycle. A loss-of-function dlg mutation, which causes neoplastic imaginal disc overgrowth, leads to loss of the septate junctions and the formation of what appear to be ectopic adherens junctions. Based on staining with PY and Dlg antibodies, the apico-lateral junctional complexes appear normal in tissue from the hyperplastic overgrowth mutants fat facets, discs overgrown, lethal (2) giant discs and warts. However, imaginal disc tissue from the neoplastic overgrowth mutants dlg and lethal giant larvae show abnormal distribution of the junctional markers, including a complete loss of apico-basal polarity in loss-of-function dlg mutations. These results support the idea that some of the proteins of apico-lateral junctions are required both for apico-basal cell polarity and for the signaling mechanisms controlling cell proliferation, whereas others are required more specifically in cell-cell signaling (Woods, 1997).
The role of integrins was examined in the formation of the cell junctions that connect muscles to epidermis (muscle attachments) and muscles to neurons (neuromuscular junctions). At the ultrastructural level two types of muscle attachments can be distinguished: direct and indirect. At the direct muscle attachments, single muscles (such as the transverse muscles) attach to epidermal cells directly such that the hemiadherens junctions (HAJs) in opposing cells are separated by only 30-40nm, with a thin line of extracellular electron-dense material in between. These closed paired HAJs are referred to as connecting HAJs. Indirect muscle attachments occur at the segmental border, where the ends of multiple muscles attach at the same epidermal site, and contain extensive extracellular matrix consisting of fuzzy electron dense fibers, separated by up to several micrometers. This is referred to as tendon matrix because, like the vertebrate tendons, it is an extracellular matrix used to attach the muscles. Since HAJs at indirect muscle attachments are not closely paired but connected to the tendon matrix, they are referred to as tendon HAJs. Both types of muscle attachments have a common molecular basis: both contain PS integrins; both are sites were large secreted proteins Tiggrin and Masquerade accumulate; the intracellular appearance of connecting HAJs and tendon HAJs looks similar; connecting HAJs and tendon HAJs can appear together at the same site; they both appear to arise from short connecting HAJs; and both HAJs are separated from the extracellular electron dense matrix by a translucent gap of a few nanometers (Prokop, 1998).
Muscle attachments and neuromuscular junctions were examined ultrastructurally in single or double mutant Drosophila embryos lacking PS1 integrin (alphaPS1betaPS), PS2 integrin (alphaPS2betaPS), and/or their potential extracellular ligand Laminin A. At the muscle attachments PS integrins are essential for the adhesion of hemiadherens junctions to extracellular matrix, but not for their intracellular link to the cytoskeleton. The intracellular electron-dense material of connecting HAJs and tendon HAJs connects to microfilaments in the muscles, and to microtubules in the epidermis. The epidermal microtubules are anchored at the other end to apical focal HAJs that connect to the cuticle (Prokop, 1998).
The PS2 integrin is only expressed in the muscles, but it is essential for the adhesion of muscle and epidermal HAJs to electron dense extracellular matrix. PS2 integrin is also required for adhesion of muscle HAJs to a less electron dense form of extracellular matrix, the basement membrane. The PS1 integrin is expressed in epidermal cells and can mediate adhesion of the epidermal HAJs to the basement membrane. The ligands involved in adhesion mediated by both PS integrins seem distinct because adhesion mediated by PS1 appears to require the extracellular matrix component Laminin A, while adhesion mediated by PS2 integrin does not (Prokop, 1998).
At neuromuscular junctions (NMJs)
the formation of functional synapses occurs normally in embryos lacking PS integrins and/or Laminin A, but the extent of contact between neuronal and muscle surfaces is altered significantly in embryos lacking laminin A. It is suggested
that neuromuscular contact does not require laminin A directly at its point of contact, but requires basement membrane adhesion to the general muscle
surface, and this form of adhesion is completely abolished in the absence of Laminin A. In contrast, loss of PS integrin function causes the boutons to make a more extensive contact with the muscle surface. Since no PS integrins are found at neuromuscular contacts it seems likely that the boutons can adhere to more muscle area because the muscle surfaces are more relaxed (allowing them to bend around the bouton) in the severely detached muscles of embryos lacking both PS integrins functions. Adhesion molecules expressed at Drosophila NMJs, like Fasciclin II, Fasciclin III or Connectin, are unlikely to mediate adhesion at the mature embryonic NMJ because they either fade during stage 16 or show no phenotype when mutated. Instead, mutant analysis reveals the existence of yet unknown embryonic adhesion factors downstream of mef2 regulation. Such factors might include laminin receptors that promote adhesion, or other receptors that displace the basement synaptic cell junction. Identification of mef2-dependent receptors might be aided by the use of lamA mutation as a sensitized background (Prokop, 1998).
Prokop, A., et al. (1998). Absence of PS integrins or Laminin A affects extracellular adhesion, but not intracellular assembly, of hemiadherens and neuromuscular junctions in Drosophila embryos. Dev. Biol. 196(1): 58-76. PubMed citation: 9527881
Tepass, U. and Hartenstein, V. (1994). The development of cellular junctions in the Drosophila embryo. Dev. Biol. 161(2): 563-596. PubMed citation: 8314002
Woods, D. F., Wu, J. W. and Bryant, P. J. (1997). Localization of proteins to the apico-lateral junctions of Drosophila epithelia. Dev. Genet. 20: 111-118. PubMed citation: 9144922
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