Interactive Fly, Drosophila

The primary axes of Drosophila are set up by the localization of transcripts within the oocyte. These mRNAs originate in the nurse cells, but how they move into the oocyte remains poorly understood. This study investigates the path and mechanism of movement of gurken RNA within the nurse cells and towards and through ring canals connecting them to the oocyte. gurken transcripts, but not control transcripts, recruit the cytoplasmic Dynein-associated co-factors Bicaudal D (BicD) and Egalitarian in the nurse cells. gurken RNA requires BicD and Dynein for its transport towards the ring canals, where it accumulates before moving into the oocyte. The results suggest that bicoid and oskar transcripts are also delivered to the oocyte by the same mechanism, which is distinct from cytoplasmic flow. It is proposed that Dynein-mediated transport of specific RNAs along specialized networks of microtubules increases the efficiency of their delivery, over the flow of general cytoplasmic components, into the oocyte (Clark, 2007).

Within nurse cells, a new path of Dynein-dependent transport to the ring canals has been identified that links the nurse cells to the oocyte. grk RNA moves along this route, and the data suggest that bcd and osk transcripts also follow the same path. This intracellular shortcut requires BicD and is distinct from the route taken by general cytoplasmic components and control RNAs, which move into the oocyte less effectively. The data suggest that the distinction between RNA components that follow this direct path and those that do not is the ability to recruit the Dynein-associated co-factors BicD and Egl. It is proposed that Dynein-dependent transport of grk, bcd and osk transcripts towards the ring canals follows a MT network, which is distinct from other networks in the nurse cells (Clark, 2007).

It was not possible to determine the proportion of grk RNA particles that move compared with ones that were stationary because it is hard to distinguish stationary particles from autofluorescence. By contrast, rapidly moving RNA particles of the same intensity are easy to distinguish from background. By showing directly that Dynein is required for the transport of axis specification transcripts from the nurse cells to the oocyte, this work explains previous work on this topic that did not directly address the mechanism of transport from the nurse cells into the oocyte. The results also explain why the movement of bcd and osk mRNA into the oocyte is MT dependent, and why pair-rule transcripts, which are transported in the blastoderm embryo in a MT-dependent manner, by Dynein, are also transported into the oocyte when exogenously expressed in the nurse cells. It is suggested that nurse cell-to-oocyte transport is likely to be a fairly promiscuous transport system that can deliver any transcript that has the capacity for transport by the Dynein motor complex along MTs to their minus ends. It is therefore likely that the Dynein-dependent shortcut is deployed by many other transcripts that are localized in the oocyte during mid-oogenesis, such as orb, K10 and nanos (nos). In fact, given that the oocyte nucleus is largely transcriptionally inactive, it is possible that up to 10% of all transcripts thought to be localized in the oocyte could first be transported by the same Dynein-dependent mechanism into the oocyte (Clark, 2007).

The Dynein-dependent transport route uncovered within the nurse cells is likely to allow transcripts encoding axis specification determinants to be delivered rapidly at key times in oogenesis. In particular, cytoplasmic transport during stages 5-8 is likely to be relatively slow and non-specific, so delivery of transcripts from the nurse cell nuclei to the oocyte cytoplasm is likely to be very slow, if it involves an undirected diffusion-based process. Certainly, osk and bcd mRNA and other transcripts are thought to form large multimeric complexes in the nurse cells, so are unlikely to be easily dispersed within the cytoplasm by free diffusion. osk and grk are transported into the oocyte at the same stages of oogenesis, and both require Bruno and Hrp48 (also known as Hrb27C - FlyBase); however, it is unclear whether they are transported within the same complexes into the oocyte. At stage 10B, the mechanism this paper has described is not required, because the rapid dumping of all of the cytoplasmic contents of the nurse cells into the oocyte occurs. However, by stage 10B, most of the major patterning transcripts have probably been localized in the oocyte (Clark, 2007).

This work does not address directly the speed of passive diffusion of RNA into the oocyte or the mechanism of cytoplasmic flow and dumping in stage 10B. Although Kinesin 1 is required for cytoplasmic movements within the oocyte, it is not required for the general growth of the oocyte or for the presence of mRNAs in the oocyte. These observations suggest that Kinesin 1 is not important for cytoplasmic transport or for specific mRNA transport into the oocyte (Clark, 2007).

The existence of a specific intracellular route for the transport of transcripts in nurse cells adds to existing evidence that there are various minus-end destinations to which different cargos are delivered by Dynein within the same cell. For example, within the oocyte, bcd RNA is transported to the cortex if injected into the oocyte, but to the anterior, after transport into the oocyte, following injection into the nurse cells. grk RNA is transported in two steps, both of which depend on Dynein. The second step is towards the oocyte nucleus, and is unique to grk and I factor RNA, but is not shared with bcd and K10 transcripts, despite the fact that all of these transcripts are probably being transported by Dynein. There are, therefore, likely to be several distinct MT routes along which Dynein can transport cargos within egg chambers. In neurons, choices between distinct MT routes are made by Kinesin-dependent vesicle transport depending on the presence of a specific neurotransmitter-receptor-interacting protein, GRIP1. How Dynein chooses between distinct MT networks is less clear, but could be based on distinct isoforms of the motor complex, on distinct kinds of MTs with different tubulin isoforms, or on their decoration with different MT-associated proteins. In addition, there is evidence that cargos can influence the behaviour of their motor, raising the interesting possibility that cargos could also influence the choice of MT route adopted by their motors. This work suggests that the presence of BicD and Egl could also influence the choice of MT route adopted by motors. Future work, including new approaches for co-visualizing MTs and RNAs in living cells, will be required to distinguish between all of these possible ways of selecting intracellular routes. Whatever the basis of such distinct routes, they are likely to exist for various kinds of molecular motors and to be functionally important for a wide range of tissues and cargos (Clark, 2007).

Protein Interactions

Egalitarian protein colocalizes with BicD protein at all stages of oogenesis. Immunoprecipitation experiments show that both proteins are part of a protein complex. Egl and BicD proteins localize to the oocyte in three stages that correlate with the stepwise polarization of the oocyte. It is proposed that the Egl-BicD protein complex links microtubule polarity and RNA transport. During early oogenesis, the complex is required to transport factors promoting oocyte differentiation; during later stages of oogenesis the complex directs the sorting of RNA molecules required for anterior-posterior and dorsoventral patterning of the embryo (Mach, 1997).

How the asymmetry between the two pro-oocytes arises is unknown, but it has been proposed that it could be generated during the first division of the cystoblast to give rise to a two-cell cyst. During this division, a vesicular structure called the spectrosome (see Drosophila Spectrin) associates with one pole of the mitotic spindle and is asymmetrically partitioned between the two daughter cells. Since each of these cells gives rise to one pro-oocyte and seven nurse cells, this asymmetry might determine which pro-oocyte is fated to become the oocyte. Whatever mechanism generates the initial asymmetry, it seems that the key step in the selection of the oocyte is the accumulation of Bicaudal-D and Egalitarian proteins in a single cell. Null mutants in either gene block the localization of the protein encoded by the other to the presumptive oocyte and prevent all other known steps in oocyte differentiation, such as the formation of an active MTOC in this single cell and the subsequent microtubule-dependent localization of oocyte-specific transcripts, such as Oskar. Although it is unclear at what point in the pathway of oocyte selection the spindle genes (see Drosophila homeless) act, they must function upstream of the process that results in the localization of Bic-D (and presumably Egl) to a single cell. It is most likely that the spindle proteins are directly involved in this process: (1) the spn double mutant combinations delay but do not block the choice between the two pro-oocytes, suggesting that they do not remove the initial asymmetry, but slow down its expression. (2) A reduction in Bic-D or Egl activity later in oogenesis leads to the same ventralized phenotype that is produced by the single spn mutations. This raises the possibility that the spn gene products interact with Bic-D and Egl at two different stages of oogenesis, first to select the oocyte and then to regulate Gurken expression once the oocyte has formed (Gonzalez-Reyes, 1997).

A slow migrating isoform of Bic-D is phosphorylated; an Ala-40 to Val mutation in a Ser/Ala rich region of the protein interferes with this phosphorylation process. This mutation also interferes with the accumulation of BicD in the pro oocyte and with oocyte differentiation (Suter, 1991).

In a yeast two-hybrid screen an interaction was identified between Drosophila lamin Dm0, a structural nuclear protein, and BICD, a protein involved in oocyte development. The interaction can be reconstituted in vitro and takes place between segments of both proteins predicted to form coiled coils. The affinity for lamin Dm0 of the minimal binding site on BICD is modulated in a complex fashion by other BICD segments. A point mutation, F684I, that causes the dominant, bicaudal, Bic-D phenotype inhibits lamin binding in the context of the minimal lamin-binding site, but not in a larger BICD fragment. The minimal lamin-binding site of BICD binds to a few other coiled-coil proteins, but binding to these proteins is not influenced by the F684I point mutation, suggesting that the interaction with lamin may play a role in Bic-D function. Structural studies demonstrated that BICD is 60%-70% alpha-helical, is a dimer, and consists of two parts: a thin rod-shaped part of about 32 nm, and a thicker rod-shaped part of about 26 nm. Likely, the thinner rod-shaped part of full-length BICD consists of the N-terminal half of the protein, and the lamin-binding site is located within the thicker rod-shaped part (Stuurman, 1999).

In many cell types, polarized transport directs the movement of mRNAs and proteins from their site of synthesis to their site of action, thus conferring cell polarity. The cytoplasmic dynein microtubule motor complex is involved in this process. In Drosophila, the Egalitarian (Egl) and Bicaudal-D (BicD) proteins are also essential for the transport of macromolecules to the oocyte and to the apical surface of the blastoderm embryo. Hence, Egl and BicD, which have been shown to associate, may be part of a conserved core localization machinery in Drosophila, although a direct association between these molecules and the dynein motor complex has not been shown. This study reports that Egl interacts directly with Drosophila dynein light chain (Dlc), a microtubule motor component, through an Egl domain distinct from that which binds BicD. It is proposed that the Egl-BicD complex is loaded through Dlc onto the dynein motor complex thereby facilitating transport of cargo. Consistent with this model, point mutations that specifically disrupt Egl-Dlc association also disrupt microtubule-dependant trafficking both to and within the oocyte, resulting in a loss of oocyte fate maintenance and polarity. These data provide a direct link between a molecule necessary for oocyte specification and the microtubule motor complex, and supports the hypothesis that microtubule-mediated transport is important for preserving oocyte fate (Navarro, 2004).

Guidance of bidirectional motor complexes by mRNA cargoes through control of dynein number and activity

During asymmetric cytoplasmic mRNA transport, cis-acting localization signals are widely assumed to tether a specific subset of transcripts to motor complexes that have intrinsic directionality. This study provides evidence that mRNA transcripts control their sorting by regulating the relative activities of opposing motors on microtubules. In Drosophila embryos it is shown that all mRNAs undergo bidirectional transport on microtubules and that cis-acting elements produce a range of polarized transcript distributions by regulating the frequency, velocity, and duration of minus-end-directed runs. Increased minus-end motility is dependent on the dosage of RNA elements and the proteins Egalitarian (Egl) and Bicaudal-D (BicD). These proteins, together with the dynein motor, are recruited differentially to different RNA signals. Cytoplasmic transfer experiments reveal that, once assembled, cargo/motor complexes are insensitive to reduced cytoplasmic levels of transport proteins. Thus, the concentration of these proteins is only critical at the onset of transport. This work suggests that the architecture of RNA elements, through Egl and BicD, regulates directional transport by controlling the relative numbers of opposite polarity motors assembled. The data raise the possibility that recruitment of different numbers of motors and regulatory proteins is a general strategy by which microtubule-based cargoes control their sorting (Bullock, 2006).

mRNA localization signals modulate the kinetics of microtubule-based transcript movements. In mammalian cells, uniformly distributed mRNAs undergo short, unidirectional transport events that are augmented in duration and frequency by the RNA signal from the localizing β-actin transcript. In Drosophila syncytial blastoderm embryos, individual nucleotide changes in the hairy (h) transcript slow the rate of delivery of injected fluorescently labeled mRNAs to the apical cytoplasm. However, it is unclear whether localization elements simply limit dissociation of mRNAs from their RNA binding protein(s), and hence the microtubule, or actively regulate motor movement (Bullock, 2006).

To investigate whether mRNA cargoes regulate the movement of motors on microtubules, improved microscopy and automatic tracking software has been used to analyze the detailed movements of mRNAs in the Drosophila blastoderm. Here, the microtubules have a stereotypical arrangement, with minus ends nucleated apically and plus ends extending basally (Bullock, 2006).

Particles of injected, fluorescently labeled h mRNA are transported bidirectionally, undergoing relatively long runs in the minus-end direction interspersed with shorter reversals (plus-end runs), as well as periods of little or no persistent movement (pauses). The net rate of apical transport of the h mRNA particles is ~150 nm/s, with active transport in both directions reaching velocities of up to ~1–1.5 μm/s (Bullock, 2006).

The characteristics of mRNA motion are reminiscent of those of other bidirectional cargoes. Firstly, the distances of runs in both directions approximate a decaying exponential distribution, as if each opposing motor activity ceases productive cargo transport due to a constant-probability event. Secondly, particles frequently undergo rapid switching between minus- and plus-end motility. This suggests that the mRNA binds opposite polarity motors at all times, with the net distribution determined by differences in their relative activities (Bullock, 2006).

It is not clear how control of net transport of other bidirectional cargoes is achieved, although opposing motor activities appear to be mutually dependent. Indeed, inhibition of the minus-end-directed motor dynein, which is required for apical mRNA localization, by preinjection of anti-dynein intermediate chain (Dic) antibodies or the dynein inhibitor vanadate, inhibits motility of h mRNA in both directions. The identity of the motor engaged during plus-end movement is not known, and it could even be dynein; recent work suggests that the motor with its accessory complex dynactin can undergo bidirectional motion on a single microtubule in vitro (Bullock, 2006).

To address the mechanistic role of apical localization signals, the behavior of h transcripts was contrasted to those of Krüppel (Kr), which are distributed evenly in the cytoplasm, or several heterologous mRNAs such as those derived from transcription of a plasmid backbone. Neither the Kr nor heterologous mRNA populations become enriched apically following injection, but each of these mRNAs rapidly assembles into particles with a spectrum of sizes similar to those of h. Surprisingly, the nonlocalizing transcripts undergo short bidirectional movements that initiate with similar kinetics to localizing mRNAs (Bullock, 2006).

The movements of the nonlocalizing transcript populations are indistinguishable from one another and are clearly motor driven; like those of h, persistent movements in both directions frequently reach velocities of ~1–1.5 μm/s and are sensitive to anti-Dic (anti-dynein intermediate chain) injection, as well as to hypomorphic mutations in the gene encoding dynein heavy chain (dhc64C). Consistent with a physiological function of bidirectional transport in achieving uniform spreading of mRNAs, endogenous Kr transcripts are retained in the perinuclear region upon injection of anti-Dic antibodies. Transport of uniform mRNAs presumably facilitates encounters with other posttranscriptional machinery (Bullock, 2006).

The ability of localizing and nonlocalizing mRNAs to undergo bidirectional transport led to an examination of which aspects of motion are significant for determining their different net distributions. Compared to nonlocalizing transcripts, apically localizing mRNAs spend more time undergoing minus-end transport and less time moving in a plus-end direction or pausing. There is a ~2.5-fold increase in the mean distance of minus-end runs of h compared to nonlocalizing mRNAs. This does not reflect increased dissociation of nonlocalizing mRNAs from recognition factors; for all RNAs tested, the distribution of plus-end run lengths is indistinguishable. Furthermore, minus-end runs are often immediately followed by reversals, which implies that mRNAs remain associated with a microtubule (Bullock, 2006).

Localizing mRNAs also have a subtle, but significant, increase in mean velocity of minus-end transport (10%–15%) compared to nonlocalizing RNAs, whereas plus-end velocity is not significantly different for all mRNAs tested. Localizing mRNAs are also ~1.4 times more likely than nonlocalizing mRNAs to undergo a minus-end run instead of a plus-end run following a pause. In contrast, the likelihood of a minus-end run or pause following a plus-end run is similar for localizing and nonlocalizing mRNAs (Bullock, 2006).

Overall, these data indicate that the h RNA localization signal is not obligatory for linking mRNAs to molecular motors. Instead, it gives rise to net apical localization by increasing the probability of initiation and maintenance of rapid minus-end-directed excursions of a bidirectional motor complex (Bullock, 2006).

To address whether localization signals are binary switches, the effects were tested of altering the sequence of the h element upon mRNA movement. The weak localizing h transcript 1328A→U—which has a mutated base in the first of two stem loops (SL1 and SL2a) that comprise the localization signal undergoes slightly longer runs in the minus-end direction than nonlocalizing transcripts, whereas plus-end run lengths are the same as those of nonlocalizing and wild-type h transcripts. This mode of localization is probably employed by certain endogenous mRNAs. For instance, endogenous ken transcripts are only partially enriched apically, and injected ken localizes with kinetics indistinguishable from those of h^1328A→U. Conversely, replacing the h localization signal with three copies of SL1 (h^SL1x3) leads to apical accumulation ~2-fold faster than h due to significant increases in the initiation, velocity, and maintenance of minus-end runs. Plus-end motility of h^SL1x3 is indistinguishable from that of the other transcripts tested. These findings indicate that mRNA sequences can generate a range of motile behaviors of bidirectional transport complexes. (Bullock, 2006).

To investigate how mRNA signals regulate minus-end transport, the potential roles of Egalitarian (Egl) and Bicaudal-D (BicD) were investigated. These proteins are components of a complex required for accumulation of several mRNAs at the minus end of microtubules in Drosophila, and their recruitment to an injected localizing transcript population can be observed above normal cytoplasmic levels. Egl binds directly to Dynein light chain (Dlc), and mammalian BicD associates with components of the dynein and dynactin complexes and recruits membranous vesicles for transport (Bullock, 2006).

It is not possible to characterize transport in egl or BicD null embryos because both factors have earlier essential functions. However, hypomorphic mutations in egl or BicD strongly reduce duration and velocity of minus-end, but not plus-end, runs of both wild-type and h^1328A→U mutant particles. Weak apical accumulation of endogenous ken transcripts is also abolished by these mutations (Bullock, 2006).

In order to test the full requirements for Egl and BicD in transport of mRNAs, embryos were preinjected with blocking antibodies specific to each protein. Antibodies to either protein block net asymmetric movement of mRNAs. However, whereas anti-Dic or vanadate injection results in very little movement of mRNAs, anti-Egl- or anti-BicD-injected embryos frequently display short runs of localizing and nonlocalizing mRNAs in both directions. This limited motility does not result from residual protein activity because it cannot be significantly reduced by injecting the antibodies into partial loss-of-function embryos or by coinjecting the two antibodies. Thus, Egl or BicD is not obligatory for linking mRNAs to a motor, which is compatible with the impairment of apical mRNA anchorage upon inhibition of dynein, but not Egl or BicD (Bullock, 2006).

Inhibition of Egl and BicD modulates the transitions between pauses, minus-end runs, and plus-end runs similarly to perturbation of localization signals. Thus, like RNA localization signals, Egl and BicD promote the initiation and maintenance of rapid minus-end-directed movement of mRNAs along microtubules (Bullock, 2006).

Nonlocalizing transcripts can, however, make use of the Egl/BicD machinery very occasionally; a small subset of Kr and plasmid mRNA particles undergo relatively long minus-end-directed runs that are sensitive to inhibition of either protein (Bullock, 2006).

The data demonstrate that Egl and BicD augment minus-end-directed movements of mRNAs on microtubules. Interestingly, the frequency, speed, and duration of minus-end runs are significantly reduced when the level of wild-type BicD protein is reduced to ~6% of normal (BicD^HA40/r5), indicating that BicD has concentration-dependent roles in regulating motility. Indeed, overexpression of BicD results in more efficient apical transport of injected h. Egl and its binding protein Dlc also function dose-dependently; minus-end motility of h on microtubules is significantly increased upon overexpression of either protein and reduced by halving egl gene dosage (Bullock, 2006).

Interestingly, elevating Egl, BicD, or Dlc levels augments minus-end motility in different ways. Very similar to increasing the number of localization elements, overexpression of Egl increases minus-end run length and minus-end velocity and modulates the transitions between travel states. In contrast, overexpressing BicD only modulates transitions between travel states, and increasing Dlc levels only increases minus-end run length and minus-end velocity. Egl might therefore function to independently recruit the activities of BicD and Dlc to mRNA signals. Indeed, different domains of Egl mediate association with these two proteins. Consistent with a concentration-dependent role of transport proteins during localization of endogenous mRNAs, there is also a subtle increase in the apical enrichment of endogenous uniform mRNAs upon Egl or Dlc overexpression. Strikingly, there is only a 2- to 2.5-fold increase in levels of Egl upon its overexpression in all of the experiments. Thus, the distinction between net symmetric and asymmetric transcript distribution could reflect subtle differences in the affinities of mRNAs for rather nonselective recognition factors (Bullock, 2006).

Egl, BicD, and Dlc levels could be important for minus-end motility because mRNAs dissociate from them during transit and efficient transport requires reassociation, or because of a function for different numbers of molecules in the transport complex from the outset. To discriminate between these two possibilities, an investigation was carried out to see whether mRNAs assembled in an environment where there is sufficient BicD are sensitive to a subsequent drop in the levels of BicD in the cytoplasm. This is not the case; h transcripts injected into an embryo overexpressing BicD and then withdrawn ~1 min later continue to be transported efficiently through the cytoplasm of BicD^HA40/r5 acceptor embryos in which BicD levels are otherwise limiting (Bullock, 2006).

This finding is associated with neither diffusion of the BicD from the donor embryo following transplantation, confirmed using an epitope tag specific to the overexpressed BicD, nor the transplantation procedure, because mRNA transferred either between BicD^HA40/r5 or between wild-type embryos behaves similarly to when transcripts are simply injected into these genotypes. Likewise, the movement of h particles exposed to cytoplasm overexpressing Egl or Dlc is not sensitive to the drop in the concentration of these proteins upon transfer to a wild-type embryo (Bullock, 2006).

These experiments indicate that the only point at which levels of these three proteins is critical is at the initial assembly of transport complexes and suggest that different RNA signals modulate motor activity in a perduring fashion by recruiting different numbers of Egl, BicD, and dynein molecules to each mRNP. Indeed, both Egl and BicD are found complexed with other molecules of themselves in vivo. Higher-order assemblies of dynein also exist in the embryo; measurements of stall forces of minus-end runs of lipid droplets reveal quantized steps of 1.1 pN -- equivalent to that of a single motor -- up to ~6 pN. Furthermore, the increases in both minus-end run length and velocity observed for localizing mRNAs and upon augmenting levels of transport proteins are consistent with observations of increasing numbers of active dyneins working together in vitro (Bullock, 2006).

To directly test whether the extent of minus-end motility of cargoes is associated with the amount of transport proteins nucleated, transcripts of wild-type h or the more efficiently localizing construct h^SL1x3 was injected into embryos and the amount of Egl and BicD assembled on individual mRNA particles in transit was assayed. Consistent with such a model, concentration of Egl and BicD above cytoplasmic levels can be observed on many particles of h^SL1x3 mRNA, but never on particles of h. Because it is not possible to observe motor components above background levels in these injection experiments, their recruitment to different RNA signals was investigated following incubation with cytoplasmic extracts in vitro. These experiments reveal that localization efficiency of mRNAs does indeed correlate with the amount of dynein components, as well as Egl and BicD, that they assemble (Bullock, 2006).

Together, these data provide evidence of a novel mechanism in which apical localization signals bias bidirectional motor movement by controlling the number of Egl, BicD, and dynein molecules incorporated into each mRNP. Because short-range bidirectional transport can occur in the absence of RNA localization signals, it is envisaged that these signals regulate minus-end motility, at least in part, by recruiting dynein motors in addition to those involved in distributing uniform mRNAs. Egl and BicD could function as adaptors that mediate the association of these additional dyneins with localization signals. Consistent with such a role, tethering mammalian BicD sequences to cargoes is sufficient to stimulate dynein recruitment and transport, and recruitment of Dhc to localizing mRNAs in vitro is reduced, but not abolished, upon immunodepletion of BicD from extracts (Bullock, 2006).

Nonetheless, the finding that increasing levels of Egl, BicD, or Dlc can modulate transport argues against a strict linear pathway of assembly. One intriguing explanation, which could also account for the substantial differences in the relative amounts of Egl and BicD assembled on individual mRNA particles, is that not all of the binding sites within the RNA:motor assembly must be saturated before transport is initiated. Modulating the number of mRNA elements or the concentration of each of the transport proteins could therefore alter the average number of fully functional Egl/BicD/dynein complexes assembled on each mRNP. Such a probabilistic mechanism could also account for the large variation in motile behaviors exhibited by particles of the same mRNA (Bullock, 2006).

Although differential motor recruitment appears to be one important mechanism to generate different classes of mRNA motion, the data hint at the existence of additional regulatory processes. The anti-BicD antibody largely uncouples minus-end run lengths from velocity, and overexpression of BicD alters transitions between travel states, but not run lengths or velocity. Thus, BicD is likely to have additional roles in regulating dynein activity. This could be through its binding to the dynactin complex, which is likely to play a key role in coordinating minus- and plus-end-directed motor activity. Indeed, Egl and BicD levels could regulate the hypothesized switch mechanism that is proposed to coordinate opposite polarity motor activities and determine when runs end (Bullock, 2006).

In many cell types, mRNAs exhibit net transport toward the plus ends of microtubules. These distributions could result from modulation of a related bidirectional transport complex using mRNA elements that preferentially nucleate or stimulate plus-end-directed motor activity. The findings also suggest that different organelles, vesicles, and macromolecules could assume a wide range of polarized distributions within the same cell by balancing opposite polarity motor activities through numerical differences in the same repertoire of transport proteins (Bullock, 2006).

GSK-3β-regulated interaction of BICD with dynein is involved in microtubule anchorage at centrosome

Microtubule arrays direct intracellular organization and define cellular polarity. This study shows a novel function of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) in the organization of microtubule arrays through the interaction with Bicaudal-D (BICD). BICD is known to form a complex with dynein-dynactin and to function in the intracellular vesicle trafficking. The data revealed that GSK-3β is required for the binding of BICD to dynein but not to dynactin. Knockdown of GSK-3β or BICD reduced centrosomally focused microtubules and induced the mislocalization of centrosomal proteins. The unfocused microtubules in GSK-3β knockdown cells were rescued by the expression of the dynein intermediate chain-BICD fusion protein. Microtubule regrowth assays showed that GSK-3β and BICD are required for the anchoring of microtubules to the centrosome. These results imply that GSK-3beta may function in transporting centrosomal proteins to the centrosome by stabilizing the BICD1 and dynein complex, resulting in the regulation of a focused microtubule organization (Fumoto, 2006).

Rab6 mediates membrane organization and determinant localization during Drosophila oogenesis

The Drosophila body axes are defined by the precise localization and the restriction of molecular determinants in the oocyte. Polarization of the oocyte during oogenesis is vital for this process. The directed traffic of membranes and proteins is a crucial component of polarity establishment in various cell types and organisms. This study investigated the role of the small GTPase Rab6 in the organization of the egg chamber and in asymmetric determinant localization during oogenesis. Exocytosis is affected in rab6-null egg chambers, which display a loss of nurse cell plasma membranes. Rab6 is also required for the polarization of the oocyte microtubule cytoskeleton and for the posterior localization of oskar mRNA. In vivo, Rab6 is found in a complex with Bicaudal-D, and Rab6 and Bicaudal-D cooperate in oskar mRNA localization. Thus, during Drosophila oogenesis, Rab6-dependent membrane trafficking is doubly required; first, for the general organization and growth of the egg chamber, and second, more specifically, for the polarization of the microtubule cytoskeleton and localization of oskar mRNA. These findings highlight the central role of vesicular trafficking in the establishment of polarity and in determinant localization in Drosophila (Coutelis, 2007).

During polarized exocytosis, secretory vesicles emerging from the TGN are targeted via molecular motors and cytoskeletal tracks to the plasma membrane, where they are tethered. Subsequently, their fusion with the plasma membrane permits the secretion of the vesicle contents, as well as the incorporation of vesicular lipids and proteins into the plasma membrane, allowing membrane growth and the establishment of specific domains. The exocyst complex plays a crucial role in the incorporation of particular membranes and membrane proteins at specific sites or in active domains of the plasma membrane. Consistent with this, Drosophila sec5 mutant egg chambers display mislocalization of other exocyst components, cytoplasmic clusters of actin and a loss of plasma membranes. Thus, Sec5 protein is at the core of the exocyst complex in Drosophila, as is the case in yeast and in mammals (Coutelis, 2007).

Both sec5 null (sec5^E10) and strongly affected rab6^D23D egg chambers display actin and general organization defects, and arrest development during early oogenesis. Similarly, sec5 hypomorphic (sec5^E13) and rab6^D23D egg chambers that develop past stage 7 display phenotypes ranging from wild type to a loss of nurse cell cortical actin and the concomitant presence of ring canal clusters in the nurse cell cytoplasm. The striking parallel between the rab6 and sec5 phenotypes, together with the finding that a loss of Rab6 affects Sec5 localization, suggests that the varying degrees of membrane loss observed in rab6^D23D egg chambers reflects the relative reduction of exocyst-complex function in the egg chamber. Thus, during Drosophila oogenesis, Rab6 promotes Sec5 localization and therefore appears to be important for exocyst-complex organization and function. However, consequent to loss of rab6 function, a striking difference was observed between nurse cells and oocyte in the severity of plasma membrane collapse and Sec5 mislocalization. It is hypothesized that the oocyte acts as a major source of membrane in rab6^D23D egg chambers and/or that multiple exocytic pathways cooperate within the germline cyst to promote cyst development (Coutelis, 2007).

Differences in membrane content between the oocyte and the nurse cells, as well as between the individual nurse cells, are observed as early as the germarium stage in wild-type egg chambers. The fusome, a membranous Spectrin-rich structure derived from the spectrosome, which itself is a precursor organelle present in the germline stem cells, grows asymmetrically through the ring canals during the divisions of the germline cyst, linking each cystocyte. It is thought that the oocyte is the four-ring-canal cell that retains the greater part of fusome during the first division. Furthermore, a Drosophila Balbiani body has recently been discovered, which, together with the fusome, organizes the specific enrichment of organelles in the oocyte throughout oogenesis. It is therefore possible that, in rab6 clones, in which the fusome appears normal, such a mechanism of enrichment of organelles in the oocyte concomitantly ensures that the concentration in the oocyte of any perduring Rab6 protein, thus privileging the growth of the plasma membrane of the oocyte over that of the nurse cells. Supporting this notion is the observation that GFP-tagged Rab6 expressed in the germline is enriched in the oocyte from the early stages of oogenesis (germarium region 2) onwards. Together, the combined actions of a residual Rab6-dependent and of additional Rab6-independent pathways might also permit most rab6^D23D oocytes to maintain sufficient vesicular trafficking to develop past stage 7 (Coutelis, 2007).

The stereotypic organization of affected rab6^D23D egg chambers at mid-oogenesis is striking. The oocyte is connected to open syncytia via its four ring canals, suggesting that the membranes linking nurse cells and oocyte are the most resistant. Furthermore, the growth of the remaining membranes indicates that additional vesicular material is delivered and incorporated into these plasma membranes. This suggests that, in these rab6^D23D egg chambers, sustained vesicle trafficking in the oocyte causes new membrane addition to the oocyte plasma membrane. It is hypothesized that, due to the continuity of the plasma membrane defining the cyst, the oocyte acts as a source of membrane that spreads by lateral diffusion throughout the plasma membrane of the cyst, allowing its growth (Coutelis, 2007).

It appears that Rab6-independent exocytic pathways also contribute to the delivery of vesicular material to the plasma membrane in the Drosophila egg chamber. Indeed, Syx1A is detected on the remaining plasma membrane of both rab6-null and sec5 egg chambers, supporting the existence of a Rab6- and Sec5-independent exocytic pathway mediating protein export. This selective loss of Sec5 from nurse cell membranes in rab6 open syncytia, together with the known functions of the exocyst, suggest a simple explanation for the defects caused by a lack of Rab6 function in oogenesis. It is hypothesized that Rab6-dependent and -independent pathways might differ qualitatively in the proteins whose traffic they mediate, or quantitatively in their relative contributions to the delivery of the same cargo between nurse cells and oocyte. These differences may account for the observed differential requirement for Rab6 in the localization of Sec5 in nurse cell, versus oocyte, plasma membranes (Coutelis, 2007).

Our analysis has revealed two separate functions of Rab6: one is a general role in the organization and growth of the egg chamber, and the other is its specialized role in MT cytoskeleton polarization and oskar mRNA localization. This second function appears specific to Rab6 because, in sec5 mutant egg chambers, Staufen localization is normal and the MT cytoskeleton is correctly organized. Only oskar mRNA, and not Oskar protein, is ectopically detected in rab6^D23D egg chambers. This suggests an impairment of oskar mRNA localization, rather than a defect in its anchoring, in which case Oskar protein would be detected with the detached RNA. Defects in oskar mRNA localization, which relies on MT polarity, could be due to a failure in the focusing of the MT cytoskeleton that is observed in rab6 egg chambers (Coutelis, 2007).

In Drosophila and mammalian cells, BicD is known to regulate MT organization. At mid-oogenesis, Rab6 and BicD cooperation could direct MT organization and/or promote the vesicular transport necessary for oocyte polarization and oskar mRNA localization. Given the implication of membrane trafficking in the asymmetric localization of mRNAs, it also possible that polarized membrane transport along the oocyte MT network directs oskar mRNA to the posterior of the oocyte, by hitch-hiking along trafficking vesicles (Coutelis, 2007).

In MDCK cells, definition of apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains is required during polarization for the arrangement of MT along an apical-basal axis. Vesicular trafficking is crucial to establish, specify and maintain these membrane domains. By analogy, at stage 7, the polarizing signal from the posterior follicular cells to the Drosophila oocyte that causes repolarization of the MT cytoskeleton might do so by inducing the definition of anterior-lateral and posterior membrane domains. It is therefore possible that, in rab6^D23D oocytes, as in epithelia, defects in vesicular trafficking and TGN sorting underlie the observed defects in MT-network organization. Consistent with this idea, a mispolarized MT cytoskeleton is also observed in oocytes lacking Rab11. Thus, vesicular trafficking and the specification of membrane domains may be required for repolarization of the MT network and for the localization of molecular determinants in the Drosophila oocyte at mid-oogenesis (Coutelis, 2007).

Rab6 and BicD function together to ensure the correct delivery of secretory pathway components, such as the TGFα homolog Gurken, to the plasma membrane

The Drosophila oocyte is a highly polarized cell. Secretion occurs towards restricted neighboring cells and asymmetric transport controls the localization of several mRNAs to distinct cortical compartments. This study describes a role for the Drosophila ortholog of the Rab6 GTPase, Drab6, in establishing cell polarity during oogenesis. Drab6 localizes to Golgi and Golgi-derived membranes and interacts with BicD. Evidence is provided that Drab6 and BicD function together to ensure the correct delivery of secretory pathway components, such as the TGFα homolog Gurken, to the plasma membrane. Moreover, in the absence of Drab6, osk mRNA localization and the organization of microtubule plus-ends at the posterior of the oocyte were both severely affected. These results point to a possible connection between Rab protein-mediated secretion, organization of the cytoskeleton and mRNA transport (Januschke, 2007).

In vertebrate cells, Rab6 is associated with the Golgi and the trans-Golgi network (TGN) membranes. To investigate the subcellular localization of Drab6 in the Drosophila germ line, the expression pattern was monitored of transgenic lines expressing Drab6 fused to GFP and RFP. It was observed that during oogenesis, the global distribution of Drab6 evolved. Drab6 first accumulated transiently in a central position during stages 7/8, then is uniformly distributed at the beginning of stage 9 to end up juxtaposed to the entire oocyte cortex. It is noteworthy that promoters of different strengths give similar expression patterns. In addition, the genomic null allele rab6^D23D is fully rescued by the different lines expressing Drab6 (Januschke, 2007).

Drab6 does not colocalize extensively with ER membranes (labeled with PDI-GFP). Instead, it seems to be differentially associated with two types of Golgi units as revealed by its association with Lava Lamp (Lva and GalT). Lva, a cis-Golgi marker, colocalizes with Drab6, mainly at the cortex of the oocyte and in nurse cells. A GFP trap protein corresponding to a UDP-galactose:beta-N-acetylglucosamine beta-1,3-galactosyltransferase (GalT), enriches predominantly in Golgi membranes, exhibits a distribution similar to that of GFP-Drab6: it accumulates in the center of the oocyte at stage 8, where it colocalizes with Drab6, and is later confined to the cortex. Importantly, the distribution of Lva and GalT is similar in both matαtubGFP-Drab6, ubiRFP-Drab6 and control oocytes. Given that Lva and GalT markers are not present in the Golgi cisternae that are evenly distributed throughout the oocyte, as documented by electron microscopy (EM) analysis, they might be the hallmark of distinct functional Golgi units, with Drab6 being able to interact with both types of Golgi. Unlike Lva, the distribution of which is only mildly affected, GalT and acetylglucosamine-modified proteins [detected by the wheat germ agglutinin lectin (WGA)] expressed by Golgi structures are abnormally distributed in Drab6 mutants. Moreover, ultrastructural analysis by EM revealed that the ER is abnormally swollen in Drab6 mutant oocytes, and that the Golgi mini-stacks are markedly curved, with partially inflated cisternae (Januschke, 2007).

These morphological effects led to an investigation of the role of Drab6 in the secretory pathway. The polarized secretion of the TGFα-like growth factor Grk was monitored. Grk secretion is restricted to the anterodorsal corner through a rapid transit from the ER towards the Golgi apparatus. In GFP-Drab6-rescued egg chambers, Grk and Drab6 colocalize. In Drab6 mutant oocytes, grk mRNA localization is the same as in wild type. Grk protein, however, is slightly more abundant than in controls and an important fraction extends ventrally. Polarized secretion of Grk lead to the formation of two dorsal appendages on the egg shell. In the absence of Drab6, mislocalized Grk induces ventralization, instead of a dorsalization (multiple dorsal appendages on the egg shell) as observed when Grk is ectopically secreted. Hence, this argues for a specific failure of Grk delivery to the plasma membrane. This phenotype is specific to Drab6 because it could be fully rescued by the GFP-Drab6 transgene (Januschke, 2007).

Next, the intracellular localization of Grk was examined in the absence of Drab6. Grk accumulated frequently in large ring-like particles in the Drab6 mutant, but not in control oocytes. These Grk 'rings', similar to those of yolk granules, did not contain Lva, suggesting that Grk is not blocked in the Golgi. Grk actually accumulates in Drab6 mutants on vesicles stained by LysoTracker, which labels either lysosomes or late endosomes containing yolk granules. Hence, two independent approaches suggest that Grk is not blocked in the Golgi, but is mislocalized to post-Golgi compartments, probably endosomes (Januschke, 2007).

Interestingly, the secretory impairment was also confirmed by Lycopersicon esculentum tomato lectin (LE) detecting modified proteins in the Golgi. In the absence of Drab6, LE revealed abnormal vesicular structures in the oocyte and nurse cells that fail to reach the cortex. EM analysis also demonstrated rupture of the plasma membrane between neighboring nurse cells. Finally, it was observed that GFP-Drab6-rescued egg chambers exhibit an accumulative enrichment of Drab6 at the plasma membrane during oogenesis, which is particularly evident in nurse cells. This is consistent with the involvement of Drab6 in secretion towards the plasmalemma (Januschke, 2007).

The existence of three important and novel aspects of Drab6 function during oogenesis has been established as follows: (1) Consistent with its localization in vertebrate cells, Drab6 is predominantly localized to the Golgi complex in Drosophila, but overlaps with Golgi markers that have distinct localizations, suggesting that Drab6 might associate with distinct functional Golgi units. Drab6 might also play a role in membrane exchange between Golgi and ER and in Golgi organization, according to EM analysis, which is again consistent with known functions of mammalian Rab6. (2) By controlling the migration of Golgi units towards the cell cortex, Drab6 controls the delivery of membrane to the plasmalemma, as shown in Drab6 mutants in which glycosylated proteins labeled by WGA and LE lectins accumulate in large vesicular structures. This pattern is similar to the mislocalization profile of Grk in the absence of Drab6. (3) In the oocyte, Drab6 is required for the anterodorsal secretion of Grk, which leads to the differentiation of the follicle cells required for the morphogenesis of the dorsal appendages of the egg shell. In the absence of Drab6, it was observed that Grk is mislocalized to late endosomal or lysosomal compartments, demonstrating that Drab6 also affects post-Golgi traffic. In vertebrates, one of the Rab6 isoforms (Rab6A') is also involved in endosome-to-Golgi transport. Additionally, a role for Ypt6p (the only copy of Rab6 in the yeast S. cerevisiae) has also been documented as being involved in fusion of endosome-derived vesicles with the late Golgi (Siniossoglou, 2001). It remains to be established whether Drab6 functions directly in the secretory pathway or if the effects observed in Drab6 mutants on post-Golgi trafficking are a consequence of defects in endosome-to-Golgi trafficking (Januschke, 2007).

In order to identify potential Drab6-binding proteins, a yeast two-hybrid screen was performed using as bait Drab6Q71L, a GTPase-deficient mutant. Sixty-two distinct truncated clones of BicD, lacking parts of the amino-terminus, interacted with Drab6Q71L. The intersection of all identified fragments defined a minimal interacting domain, mapping to amino acids 699-772 in the coiled-coil motif H4 of BicD, shown for murine BicD to interact with the mammalian Rab6. In order to validate this interaction, glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays were performed, using lysates from wild-type ovaries. GST-Drab6 specifically retained BicD; GST alone and GST-Rab1 did not bind BicD. Furthermore, preloading GST-Drab6 with the non-hydrolyzable GTP analog, GTP-γ-S, yielded an improved interaction with BicD. It is concluded, therefore, that in vitro, BicD interacts through its carboxy-terminus preferentially with the active form of Drab6 (GTP-bound), as has been shown for mammalian Rab6 (Januschke, 2007 and references therein).

Time-lapse recording showed that in the oocyte and nurse cells, RFP-Drab6 and BicD-GFP colocalize to multiple large aggregates with low dynamics. Further GFP-Drab6 accumulation in the center depends on the presence of BicD during stage 8, as observed in a BicD^mom background. Interestingly, in such BicD^mom oocytes, Grk is found in ring-like structures remote from the nucleus, as observed in Drab6 mutant oocytes (Januschke, 2007).

Since BicD and Rab6 have been shown to be involved in MT-based transport, experiments were conducted to discover whether Drab6-positive structures require MTs for movement. Time-lapse microscopy revealed that large aggregates are less dynamic than the highly motile small particles. Colchicine MT depolymerization severely reduced the movement of Drab6 particles, which form large clusters, indicating that Drab6 is actively transported along MTs. The MT motors Kinesin I [Kinesin heavy chain (Khc)] and Dynein have been shown to be involved in polarizing the Drosophila oocyte. Inactivating the Dynein complex by the overexpression of Dynamitin prevents accumulation of Drab6 at the oocyte cortex, but does not significantly reduce Drab6 movements. By contrast, in Khc^7.288 germ line clones, Drab6 does not localize in the center of the oocyte during stage 7/8 but forms abnormal aggregates around the mispositioned nucleus. For reasons not currently fully understood, the speed of Drab6 particles is significantly reduced compared with controls or Dynamitin-overexpressing oocytes (Januschke, 2007).

Drab6 and BicD interact in a yeast two-hybrid screen and in GST pull-down assays and colocalize in vivo. Moreover, there are indications that Drab6 requires BicD for correct subcellular localization, which suggests that Drab6 interacts with BicD in Drosophila as it does in mammals. Strikingly, it was found that lack of each protein compromises Grk secretion in a very similar way. Overexpression of Dynamitin, to impair Dynein function, induces ectopic accumulation of Grk and ventralization of the egg shell (Januschke, 2002). Therefore, in Drosophila, BicD/Dynein and Drab6 are likely to be involved together in Grk secretion to the anterodorsal corner of the oocyte (Januschke, 2007).

It is important to mention that colocalization of the two proteins is limited. Moreover, lack of BicD or Drab6 yields different phenotypes. BicD mutation affects oocyte determination and the position of the oocyte nucleus, but has no impact on MT organization in mid-oogenesis, which is not the case in the Drab6 mutant. A genetic interaction between BicD's co-factor Egalitarian and Kinesin I has already been demonstrated, suggesting that Drab6 might interact with Dynein and Kinesin I via BicD (Januschke, 2007).

Interestingly, it was noticed that in the absence of Drab6, osk mRNA is not correctly localized in the oocyte. gurken and bicoid mRNAs are, however, unaffected, and osk mRNA localization to the oocyte center is frequent when the MT network is not correctly polarized. In Drab6 mutant oocytes, the defective posterior localization of the MT plusend marker Khc-ß-Gal indicates a defect in MT organization (Januschke, 2007).

Given that Drab6 is required for late Grk signaling at the anterodorsal corner of the oocyte, it might also be involved in early germ line to soma signaling mediated by Grk, which controls MT organization. This is thought unlikely. In the absence of this signaling, posterior follicle cells differentiate into anterior follicle cells and, as a consequence, the posterior structure of the egg shell, the aeropyle, is substituted with an anterior structure, the micropyle. An aeropyle is always observed at the posterior of eggs derived from Drab6 mutant oocytes. Additionally, removing Drab6 from the posterior follicle cells does not affect oocyte polarity. Hence, Drab6 is possibly involved in MT organization at the posterior pole. Interestingly, Rab6 family interactors such as Rab6IP2/ELKS are capable of interacting with CLASPs at the cortex of HeLa cells, suggesting a link between Rab6 protein and MT organization at the cortex (Januschke, 2007).

Bicaudal-D mRNA localization

A DEAD-box protein, Me31B, forms a cytoplasmic RNP complex with oocyte-localizing RNAs. During early oogenesis, loss of Me31B causes premature translation of oocyte-localizing RNAs within nurse cells, without affecting their transport to the oocyte. In early egg chambers that lack Me31B, at least two mRNAs in particles, OSK and Bicaudal-D mRNAs, are prematurely translated in nurse cells, though the transport of these RNAs to the oocyte is Me31B independent. These results suggest that Me31B mediates translational silencing of RNAs during their transport to the oocyte. These data provide evidence that RNA transport and translational control are linked through the assembly of RNP complex (Nakamura, 2001).

A visual screen was conducted with an ovarian GFP-cDNA library, in which fusion genes are expressed in germline cells during oogenesis. Transgenic flies were generated with this library and proteins were identified that distribute in a granular pattern during oogenesis. Screening ~3000 independent lines, one was isolated in which GFP signals were detected as cytoplasmic particles during oogenesis. The particles were dispersed in the cytoplasm of both nurse cells and oocytes but never detected within nuclei. The particles were frequently observed passing through ring canals, suggesting that the particles are assembled in nurse cell cytoplasm and transported to the oocyte (Nakamura, 2001).

The cDNA from this line was identified as me31B. In the cDNA fusion, almost the entire coding region of me31B, which lacks only the first four codons, was fused in frame with that of gfp. Me31B, a DEAD-box protein and therefore a putative ATP-dependent RNA helicase, was isolated as a gene expressed extensively during oogenesis. Me31B is a part of an evolutionally conserved DEAD-box protein group, which includes human RCK/p54 (71% identical), Xenopus Xp54 (73%), Caenorhabditis elegans C07H6.5 (76%), Schizosaccharomyces pombe Ste13 (68%) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Dhh1 (68%). Furthermore, Me31B is phylogenetically close to two evolutionally conserved proteins, eIF4A and Dbp5/Rat8p but far from Vasa, which functions in germline development (Nakamura, 2001).

To examine distribution of the endogenous Me31B, antibodies were generated that specifically recognized Me31B. The distribution pattern of endogenous Me31B is identical to that of GFP-Me31B. No detectable signal in somatic follicle cells is observed at any stage of oogenesis. Me31B is first detected at a low level in germarium region 2B, where the signal is concentrated in the pro-oocytes. The signal remains concentrated in the oocyte until mid-oogenesis. In early egg chambers, a low level Me31B signal is detected in nurse cell cytoplasm. In both nurse cells and oocytes, the signal appears to be granular. Me31B signals in nurse cell cytoplasm become more evident from stage 5-6, when Me31B expression is drastically increased. In addition, Me31B is frequently enriched around nurse cell nuclei. Later, Me31B accumulates at the posterior pole of stage 10 oocytes. However, this posterior accumulation is transient, as revealed by uniform distribution of the signal in cleavage embryos. By cellular blastoderm stage, Me31B becomes undetectable in the entire embryonic region. No zygotic expression of Me31B was detected during embryogenesis (Nakamura, 2001).

Because Me31B is probably an RNA-binding protein that is transported to the oocyte, it was asked whether Me31B forms a complex with oocyte-localizing RNAs. Colocalization of OSK mRNA with Me31B was examined. OSK mRNA starts to accumulate in oocytes from germarium region 2B, with the concentration of OSK increasing over time. Posterior accumulation of OSK mRNA in the oocyte begins from stage 8 onwards. By fluorescent in situ hybridization, OSK mRNA exhibits particulate signals in the cytoplasm of both nurse cells and oocytes, and is frequently concentrated around nurse cell nuclei. This distribution pattern of OSK mRNA is essentially identical to that of Me31B, with colocalization present until OSK mRNA localizes to the posterior pole of stage 10 oocytes (Nakamura, 2001).

Colocalization of Me31B with other RNAs was also examined. Ovaries were doublestained for Me31B and BicD mRNA. In early egg chambers, BicD mRNA also produces particulate signals, and appears to localize in Me31B-containing particles. This colocalization becomes apparent from stage 5-6, when BicD mRNA expression is elevated. The oocyte-localizing RNAs examined [BCD, NOS, Oo18 RNA-binding (ORB), Polar granule component (PGC) and Germ cell-less (GCL)] all produce particulate signals in the cytoplasm of both nurse cells and oocytes, and colocalize with Me31B. In contrast, Vasa mRNA, which is not specifically transported to the oocyte, does not appear to be colocalized with Me31B. These results indicate that Me31B forms cytoplasmic particles that contain oocyte-localizing RNAs (Nakamura, 2001).

The complicated and redundant phenotypes observed in me31B^- egg chambers in mid-oogenesis are unlikely to be the primary effect of loss of me31B function. Earlier phenotypes of me31B^- egg chambers were examined using a FLP/FRT system to generate homozygous germline clones that are marked by the loss of Vas-GFP fusion protein. Based on Hoechst and phalloidin staining, me31B^- egg chambers are morphologically normal until stage 4-5. From stage 6 onwards, oocytes in me31B^- egg chambers fail to grow normally. At this stage, these egg chambers begin to degenerate. In early me31B^- egg chambers, Exu signal is concentrated to the oocytes. Distributions of OSK and BicD mRNAs in me31B^- egg chambers were examined. Both OSK and BicD mRNAs also accumulate in the oocytes of me31B^- egg chambers until the chambers degenerate. Particulate signals for these RNAs are detectable in nurse cell cytoplasm in these egg chambers. These results indicate that Exu, OSK and BicD mRNAs can be transported to the oocyte even in the absence of Me31B. It is concluded that in early egg chambers, Me31B is dispensable for the transport of the molecules that form a complex with Me31B (Nakamura, 2001).

Whether loss of Me31B affects translation of OSK and BicD mRNAs was examined. Ovaries were immunostained with an anti-Osk antiserum. Although OSK mRNA is expressed during almost all stages of oogenesis, its translation is repressed to keep Osk protein level very low during early oogenesis. In me31B^- egg chambers, Osk signal is significantly increased compared with that in the neighboring me31B⁺ egg chambers (Nakamura, 2001).

A similar increase of BicD signal in me31B^- egg chambers is more evident. In wild-type egg chambers, BicD protein, like BicD mRNA, is highly concentrated in the oocytes starting from germarium region 2B. In the egg chambers lacking me31B, increased BicD signal is detected in nurse cell cytoplasm. These results suggest that loss of Me31B in germline cells causes derepression of OSK and BicD mRNA translation during their transport to the oocyte (Nakamura, 2001).

DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY