In yeast two-hybrid screens for intracellular molecules interacting with different neurexins, a single interacting protein called CASK has been identified. CASK is composed of an N-terminal Ca2+, calmodulin-dependent protein kinase sequence and a C-terminal region that is similar to the intercellular junction proteins dlg-A, PSD95/SAP90, SAP97, Z01, and Z02 (Drosophila homolog: Discs large). The C-terminal region also contains DHR-, SH3-, and guanylate kinase domains. CASK is enriched in the synaptic plasma membranes of the brain, but is also detectable at low levels in all tissues tested. The cytoplasmic domains of all three neurexins bind CASK in a salt-labile interaction. In neurexin I, this interaction is dependent on the C-terminal three residues. Thus, CASK is a membrane-associated protein that combines domains found in Ca(2+)-activated protein kinases and in proteins specific for intercellular junctions, suggesting that it may be a signaling molecule operating at the plasma membrane, possibly in conjunction with neurexins (Hata, 1996).
In Caenorhabditis elegans, vulval induction is mediated by the let-23 receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)/ Ras signaling pathway. The precise localization of let-23 RTK at epithelial junctions is essential for the vulval induction, and requires three genes, including lin-2, -7, and -10. The mammalian homolog of lin-2 has been identified as CASK, a protein interacting with neurexin, a neuronal adhesion molecule. CASK has recently been reported to interact with syndecans and an actin-binding protein, band 4.1, at epithelial and synaptic junctions, and to play central roles in the formation of cell-cell junctions. The product of C. elegans lin-7 directly interacts with let-23 RTK and localizes let-23 RTK at epithelial junctions. Three rat homologs of lin-7 are ubiquitously expressed in various tissues. These homologs accumulate at the junctional complex region in cultured Madin-Darby canine kidney cells, and are also localized at the synaptic junctions in neurons. The mammalian homologs of lin-7 may be implicated in the formation of cell-cell junctions (Irie, 1999).
By controlling the subcellular localization of growth factor receptors, cells can modulate the activity of intracellular signal transduction pathways. During Caenorhabditis elegans vulval development, a ternary complex consisting of the LIN-7, LIN-2 and LIN-10 PDZ domain proteins localizes the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) to the basolateral compartment of the vulval precursor cells (VPCs) to allow efficient receptor activation by the inductive EGF signal from the anchor cell. EGFR substrate protein-8 (EPS-8) has been identified as a novel component of the EGFR localization complex that links receptor trafficking to cell fate specification. EPS-8 expression is upregulated in the primary VPCs, where it creates a positive feedback loop in the EGFR/RAS/MAPK pathway. The membrane-associated guanylate kinase LIN-2 recruits EPS-8 into the receptor localization complex to retain the EGFR on the basolateral plasma membrane, and thus allow maximal receptor activation in the primary cell lineage. Low levels of EPS-8 in the neighboring secondary VPCs result in the rapid degradation of the EGFR, allowing these cells to adopt the secondary cell fate. Extracellular signals thus regulate EGFR trafficking in a cell type-specific manner to control pattern formation during organogenesis (Stetak, 2006).
LIN-2, -7 (L27) homology domains are putative protein-protein interaction modules found in several scaffold proteins involved in the assembly of polarized cell-signaling structures. These specific interaction pairs are well conserved across metazoan species, from worms to man. L27 domains were expressed and purified from multiple species and it was found that certain domains from proteins such as Caenorhabditis elegans LIN-2 and LIN-7 can specifically heterodimerize. Biophysical analysis of interacting L27 domains demonstrates that the domains interact with a 1:1 stoichiometry. Circular dichroism studies reveal that the domains appear to function as an obligate heterodimer; individually the domains are largely unfolded, but when associated they show a significant increase in helicity, as well as a cooperative unfolding transition. These novel obligate interacting pairs are likely to play a key role in regulating the organization of signaling proteins at polarized cell structures (Harris, 2002).
LIN-2/7 (L27) domains are protein interaction modules that preferentially hetero-oligomerize, a property critical for their function in directing specific assembly of supramolecular signaling complexes at synapses and other polarized cell-cell junctions. The solution structure of the heterodimer composed of the L27 domains from LIN-2 and LIN-7 have been solved. Comparison of this structure with other L27 domain structures has allowed formulation of a general model for why most L27 domains form an obligate heterodimer complex. L27 domains can be divided in two types (A and B), with each heterodimer comprising an A/B pair. Two keystone positions were identified that play a central role in discrimination. The residues at these positions are energetically acceptable in the context of an A/B heterodimer, but would lead to packing defects or electrostatic repulsion in the context of A/A and B/B homodimers. As predicted by the model, mutations of keystone residues stabilize normally strongly disfavored homodimers. Thus, L27 domains are specifically optimized to avoid homodimeric interactions (Petrosky, 2005).
Initially identified in Caenorhabditis elegans Lin-2 and Lin-7, L27 domain is a protein-protein interaction domain capable of organizing scaffold proteins into supramolecular assemblies by formation of heteromeric L27 domain complexes. L27 domain-mediated protein assemblies have been shown to play essential roles in cellular processes including asymmetric cell division, establishment and maintenance of cell polarity, and clustering of receptors and ion channels. The structural basis of L27 domain heteromeric complex assembly is controversial. The high-resolution solution structure of the prototype L27 domain complex formed by mLin-2 and mLin-7 was determined as well as the solution structure of the L27 domain complex formed by Patj and Pals1. The structures suggest that a tetrameric structure composed of two units of heterodimer is a general assembly mode for cognate pairs of L27 domains. Structural analysis of the L27 domain complex structures further showed that the central four-helix bundles mediating tetramer assembly are highly distinct between different pairs of L27 domain complexes. Biochemical studies revealed that the C-terminal alpha-helix responsible for the formation of the central helix bundle is a critical specificity determinant for each L27 domain in choosing its binding partner. These results provide a unified picture for L27 domain-mediated protein-protein interactions (Feng, 2005)
Mint1 (X11/human Lin-10) and Mint2 are neuronal adaptor proteins that bind to Munc18-1 (n/rb-sec1), a protein essential for synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Mint1 has previously been characterized in a complex with CASK, another adaptor protein which in turn interacts with neurexins. Neurexins are neuron-specific cell surface proteins that act as receptors for the excitatory neurotoxin alpha-latrotoxin. Hence, one possible function for Mint1 is to mediate the recruitment of Munc18 to neurexins. In agreement with this hypothesis, it has been shown that the cytoplasmic tail of neurexins captures Munc18 via a multiprotein complex that involves Mint1. Furthermore, both Mint1 and Mint2 can directly bind to neurexins in a PDZ domain-mediated interaction. Various Mint and/or CASK-containing complexes can be assembled on neurexins, and Mint1 can bind to Munc18 and CASK simultaneously. These data support a model whereby one of the functions of Mints is to localize the vesicle fusion protein Munc18 to those sites at the plasma membrane that are defined by neurexins, presumably in the vicinity of points of exocytosis (Biederer, 2000).
Membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) proteins act as molecular scaffolds organizing multiprotein complexes at specialized regions of the plasma membrane. All MAGUKs contain a Src homology 3 (SH3) domain and a region homologous to yeast guanylate kinase (GUK). One MAGUK protein, human CASK (hCASK), is widely expressed and associated with epithelial basolateral plasma membranes. hCASK binds another MAGUK, human discs large (hDlg). Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrates that hCASK and hDlg colocalize at basolateral membranes of epithelial cells in small and large intestine. These proteins co-precipitate from lysates of an intestinal cell line, Caco-2. The GUK domain of hCASK binds the SH3 domain of hDlg in both yeast two-hybrid and fusion protein binding assays, and it is required for interaction with hDlg in transfected HEK293 cells. In addition, the SH3 and GUK domains of each protein participate in intramolecular binding that in vitro predominates over intermolecular binding. The SH3 and GUK domains of human p55 display the same interactions in yeast two-hybrid assays as those of hCASK. Not all SH3-GUK interactions among these MAGUKs are permissible, however, implying specificity to SH3-GUK interactions in vivo. These results suggest MAGUK scaffold assembly may be regulated through effects on intramolecular SH3-GUK binding (Nix, 2000).
Formation, differentiation, and plasticity of synapses require interactions between pre- and postsynaptic partners. Recently, it was shown that the transmembrane immunoglobulin superfamily protein SYG-1 is required for providing synaptic specificity in C. elegans. However, it is unclear whether the mammalian orthologs of SYG-1 are also involved in local cell interactions to determine specificity during synapse formation. In situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and immunogold electron microscopy were used to study the temporal and spatial expression of Neph1 and Neph2 in the developing and adult mouse brain. Both proteins show similar patterns with neuronal expression starting around embryonic days 12 and 11, respectively. Expression is strongest in areas of high migratory activity. In the adult brain, Neph1 and Neph2 are predominantly seen in the olfactory nerve layer and the glomerular layer of the olfactory bulb, in the hippocampus, and in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. At the ultrastructural level, Neph1 and Neph2 are detectable within the dendritic shafts of pyramidal neurons. To a lesser extent, there is also synaptic localization of Neph1 within the stratum pyramidale of the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 region on both pre- and postsynaptic sites. Here it colocalizes with the synaptic scaffolder calmodulin-associated serine/threonine kinase (CASK), and both Neph1 and Neph2 interact with the PDZ domain of CASK via their cytoplasmic tail. These results show that Neph proteins are expressed in the developing nervous system of mammals and suggest that these proteins may have a conserved function in synapse formation or neurogenesis (Gerke, 2006).
CASK, an adaptor protein of the plasma membrane, is composed of an N-terminal calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein (CaM) kinase domain, central PSD-95, Dlg, and ZO-1/2 domain (PDZ) and Src homology 3 (SH3) domains, and a C-terminal guanylate kinase sequence. The CaM kinase domain of CASK binds to Mint 1, and the region between the CaM kinase and PDZ domains interacts with Velis, resulting in a tight tripartite complex. CASK, Velis, and Mint 1 are evolutionarily conserved in Caenorhabditis elegans, in which homologous genes (called lin-2, lin-7, and lin-10) are required for vulva development. The N-terminal CaM kinase domain of CASK binds to a novel brain-specific adaptor protein called Caskin 1. Caskin 1 and a closely related isoform, Caskin 2, are multidomain proteins containing six N-terminal ankyrin repeats, a single SH3 domain, and two sterile alpha motif domains followed by a long proline-rich sequence and a short conserved C-terminal domain. Unlike CASK and Mint 1, no Caskin homolog was detected in C. elegans. Immunoprecipitations showed that Caskin 1, like Mint 1, is stably bound to CASK in the brain. Affinity chromatography experiments demonstrated that Caskin 1 coassembles with CASK on the immobilized cytoplasmic tail of neurexin 1, suggesting that CASK and Caskin 1 coat the cytoplasmic tails of neurexins and other cell-surface proteins. Detailed mapping studies revealed that Caskin 1 and Mint 1 bind to the same site on the N-terminal CaM kinase domain of CASK and compete with each other for CASK binding. These data suggest that in the vertebrate brain, CASK and Velis form alternative tripartite complexes with either Mint 1 or Caskin 1 that may couple CASK to distinct downstream effectors (Tabuchi, 2002).
Nephrin is a cell surface receptor of the Ig superfamily that localizes to slit diaphragms, the specialized junctions between the interdigitating foot processes of the glomerular epithelium (podocytes) in the kidney. Mutations in the NPHS1 gene encoding nephrin lead to proteinuria and congenital nephrotic syndrome, indicating that nephrin is essential for normal glomerular development and function. To identify nephrin-binding proteins, mass spectrometry was performed on proteins obtained from pull-down assays with GST-nephrin cytoplasmic domain. Nephrin specifically pulled down six proteins from glomerular lysates, MAGI-2/S-SCAM (membrane-associated guanylate kinase inverted 2/synaptic scaffolding molecule), IQGAP1 (IQ motif-containingGTPase-activatingprotein1), CASK (calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine protein kinase), alpha-actinin, alphaII spectrin, and betaII spectrin. All of these scaffolding proteins are often associated with cell junctions. By immunofluorescence these proteins are expressed in glomerular epithelial cells, where they colocalize with nephrin in the foot processes. During glomerular development, IQGAP1 is expressed in the junctional complexes between the earliest identifiable podocytes, MAGI-2/S-SCAM is first detected in junctional complexes in podocytes after their migration to the base of the cells. Thus, the nephrin-slit diaphragm protein complex contains a group of scaffolding proteins that function to connect junctional membrane proteins to the actin cytoskeleton and signaling cascades. Despite their special morphology and function, there is considerable compositional similarity between the podocyte slit diaphragm and typical junctional complexes of other epithelial cells (Lehtonen, 2005).
Hearing in mammals depends upon the proper development of actin-filled stereocilia at the hair cell surface in the inner ear. Whirlin, a PDZ domain-containing protein, is expressed at stereocilia tips and, by virtue of mutations in the whirlin gene, is known to play a key role in stereocilia development. Whirlin interacts with the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) protein, erythrocyte protein p55 (p55). p55 is expressed in outer hair cells in long stereocilia that make up the stereocilia bundle as well as surrounding shorter stereocilia structures. p55 interacts with protein 4.1R in erythrocytes, and 4.1R is also expressed in stereocilia structures with an identical pattern to p55. Mutations in the whirlin gene (whirler) and in the myosin XVa gene (shaker2) affect stereocilia development and lead to early ablation of p55 and 4.1R labeling of stereocilia. The related MAGUK protein Ca2+-calmodulin serine kinase (CASK) is also expressed in stereocilia in both outer and inner hair cells, where it is confined to the stereocilia bundle. CASK interacts with protein 4.1N in neuronal tissue, and 4.1N is expressed in stereocilia with an identical pattern to CASK. Unlike p55, CASK labeling shows little diminution of labeling in the whirler mutant and is unaffected in the shaker2 mutant. Similarly, expression of 4.1N in stereocilia is unaltered in whirler and shaker2 mutants. p55 and protein 4.1R form complexes critical for actin cytoskeletal assembly in erythrocytes, and the interaction of whirlin with p55 indicates it plays a similar role in hair cell stereocilia (Mburu, 2005; full text of article).
CASK has been implicated in synaptic protein targeting, synaptic organization, and transcriptional regulation. Three more CASK associated proteins, GRIP1, PKCepsilon, and RGS4, were initially identified by immunoprecipitation and mass analysis, and confirmed by immunoprecipitation-immunoblotting assay using rat brain extract. Via the interaction with GRIP1, GluR2/3 was also co-immunoprecipitated by CASK antibody from rat brain. The PDZ and SH3-GK domains of CASK were demonstrated as the associated domains for GRIP1 and PKCepsilon, respectively. The associations between CASK, PKCepsilon, and RGS4 were up-regulated in the adult brain compared with postnatal day 11 rat brain. In contrast, the associations of CASK with Mint1, GRIP1, and GluR2/3 were down-regulated in the adult brain. These results suggest that CASK protein complex is developmentally regulated by unknown signals. In conclusion, this study suggests that the CASK protein complex not only functions as a scaffold but also recruits signaling molecules and may contribute to signal transduction (Hong, 2006).
CASK acts as a coactivator for Tbr-1, an essential transcription factor in cerebral cortex development. Presently, the molecular mechanism of the CASK coactivation effect is unclear. This study reports that CASK binds to another nuclear protein, CINAP, which binds histones and facilitates nucleosome assembly. CINAP, via its interaction with CASK, forms a complex with Tbr-1, regulating expression of the genes controlled by Tbr-1 and CASK, such as NR2b and reelin. A knockdown of endogenous CINAP in hippocampal neurons reduces the promoter activity of NR2b. Moreover, NMDA stimulation results in a reduction in the level of CINAP protein, via a proteasomal degradation pathway, correlating with a decrease in NR2b expression in neurons. This study suggests that reduction of the CINAP protein level by synaptic stimulation contributes to regulation of the transcriptional activity of the Tbr-1/CASK/CINAP protein complex and thus modifies expression of the NR2b gene (Wang, 2004).
A transgenic mouse insertional mutant displayed the phenotype of altered cranial morphology with sex-linked cleft palate. The disrupted genomic X-linked locus was cloned and identified as the mCASK gene. The gene is transcribed to produce two messages of 4.5 and 9.5 kb expressed during development and in adult tissues, particularly the brain. Two differentially spliced mouse cDNAs were cloned from the locus (mCASK-A and mCASK-B). The mCASK-B cDNA probably represents the full-length product of the 4.5-kb transcript. The identical N-termini of the predicted encoded proteins (mCASK-A and -B) are highly homologous to Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, while the deduced C-terminus of mCASK-B is highly homologous to a family of multidomain proteins containing a guanylate kinase motif, the MAGUK proteins. mCASK-B is a new member of an emerging family of genes in which the encoded proteins combine these domains, termed here, the CAMGUKs, including rat CASK, Caenorhabditis elegans lin-2, and Drosophila caki/camguk. The CAMGUKs are likely to be effectors in signal transduction as regulatory partners of transmembrane molecules, modulated by calcium and nucleotides. The transgene in this mutant mouse line integrated into an intron that bisects the encoded calmodulin-binding domain, a potentially important regulatory domain of the predicted protein, generating hybrid transcripts (Laverty, 1998).
CASK is an evolutionarily conserved multidomain protein composed of an N-terminal Ca(2+)/calmodulin-kinase domain, central PDZ and SH3 domains, and a C-terminal guanylate kinase domain. Many potential activities for CASK have been suggested, including functions in scaffolding the synapse, in organizing ion channels, and in regulating neuronal gene transcription. To better define the physiological importance of CASK, CASK 'knockdown' mice in which CASK expression was suppressed by approximately 70%, and CASK knockout (KO) mice, in which CASK expression was abolished, were analyzed. CASK knockdown mice are viable but smaller than WT mice, whereas CASK KO mice die at first day after birth. CASK KO mice exhibit no major developmental abnormalities apart from a partially penetrant cleft palate syndrome. In CASK-deficient neurons, the levels of the CASK-interacting proteins Mints, Veli/Mals, and neurexins are decreased, whereas the level of neuroligin 1 (which binds to neurexins that in turn bind to CASK) is increased. Neurons lacking CASK display overall normal electrical properties and form ultrastructurally normal synapses. However, glutamatergic spontaneous synaptic release events are increased, and GABAergic synaptic release events are decreased in CASK-deficient neurons. In contrast to spontaneous neurotransmitter release, evoked release exhibited no major changes. These data suggest that CASK, the only member of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase protein family that contains a Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase domain, is required for mouse survival and performs a selectively essential function without being in itself required for core activities of neurons, such as membrane excitability, Ca(2+)-triggered presynaptic release, or postsynaptic receptor functions (Atasoy, 2007).
Synaptogenesis is a highly regulated process that underlies formation of neural circuitry. Considerable work has demonstrated the capability of some adhesion molecules, such as SynCAM and Neurexins/Neuroligins, to induce synapse formation in vitro. Furthermore, Cdk5 gain of function results in an increased number of synapses in vivo. To gain a better understanding of how Cdk5 might promote synaptogenesis, potential crosstalk between Cdk5 and the cascade of events mediated by synapse-inducing proteins was investigated in a mammalian system. One protein recruited to developing terminals by SynCAM and Neurexins/Neuroligins is the MAGUK family member CASK. It was found that Cdk5 phosphorylates and regulates CASK distribution to membranes. In the absence of Cdk5-dependent phosphorylation, CASK is not recruited to developing synapses and thus fails to interact with essential presynaptic components. Functional consequences include alterations in calcium influx. Mechanistically, Cdk5 regulates the interaction between CASK and liprin-α. These results provide a molecular explanation of how Cdk5 can promote synaptogenesis (Samuels, 2007).
Homologs of liprin-α proteins are essential for presynaptic terminal formation in C. elegans and Drosophila . Mutations in C. elegans syd-2 result in a diffuse localization of several presynaptic proteins and abnormally sized active zones, and loss- and gain-of-function experiments demonstrate that presynaptic organization is dependent on syd-2. Likewise, Dliprin-α is required for normal synaptic morphology including the size and shape of the presynaptic active zone in Drosophila . Cdk5-dependent phosphorylation of CASK occurs in both the CaMK and L27 domains, and only mutation of both sites yields a localization phenotype. Since liprin-α proteins require the presence of both domains to interact with CASK, the phosphorylation sites are in a prime spot to mediate the interaction. According to the model described in this study, liprin-α is required for initial CASK localization to presynaptic terminals. Since, liprin-α binds directly to the kinesin motor KIF1A and in Drosophila liprin-α mutant axons there is decreased anterograde processivity resulting in reduced levels of presynaptic markers at terminals, it is feasible that liprin-α acts as a cargo receptor that delivers CASK, as well as other components, to and within the developing synapse. Cdk5-dependent phosphorylation could then act to coordinate distinct pools of CASK that are bound to liprin-α or are bound to other components of the presynaptic machinery. Importantly, it is not believed that Cdk5 loss of function generally affects liprin-α-mediated transport since synaptophysin, a marker of synaptic vesicles, is still properly localized within synaptosomes. In this model, there would be advantages of having locally enhanced Cdk5 activity within the presynaptic terminal relative to some other cellular compartments. Supporting this idea, phospho-CASK is particularly enriched at synaptic membranes, and Cdk5 has been shown to phosphorylate and regulate several proteins, including Munc-18, Dynamin-1, Amphiphysin-1, and Synaptojanin-1, that function to control multiple rounds of the synaptic vesicle cycle. Synapsin-1 is also a Cdk5 substrate. With regard to the role of liprin-α, it will ultimately be essential to assay synapse formation and CASK localization in mammalian liprin-α loss-of-function models (Samuels, 2007).
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